ambition. And though we Greeks see and hear all this, we send no embassies to each other; we express no resentment; but into such wretchedness are we sunk, that even to this day, we neglect what our interest and duty demand. Without engaging in associations, or forming confederacies, we look with unconcern upon Philip's growing power; each fondly imagining, that the time in which another is destroyed, is so much time gained on him; although no man can be ignorant, that, like the regular periodic return of a fever, he is coming upon those who think themselves the most remote from danger. And what is the cause of our present passive disposition? For some cause sure there must be, why the Greeks, who have been so zealous heretofore in defence of liberty, are now so prone to slavery. The cause, Athenians! is, that a principle, which was formerly fixed in the minds of all, now exists no more; a principle which conquered the opulence of Persia; maintained the freedom of Greece, and triumphed over the powers of sea and land. That principle was, an unanimous abhorrence of all those who accepted bribes from princes, that were enemies to the liberties of Greece. To be convicted of bribery, was then a crime altogether unpardonable. Neither orators, nor generals, would then sell for gold, the favourable conjunctures which fortune put into their hands. No gold could impair our firm concord at home, our hatred and defiance of tyrants and barbarians. But now all things are exposed to sale, as in a public market. Corruption has introduced such manners, as have proved the bane and destruction of our country. Is a man known to have received foreign money? People envy him. Does he own it? They laugh. Is he convicted in form? They forgive him: so universally has this contagion diffused itself among us.

"If there be any who, though not carried away by bribes, yet are struck with terror, as if Philip was something more than human, they may see, upon a little consideration, that he hath exhausted all those artifices to which he owes his present elevation; and that his affairs are now ready to decline. For I myself, Athenians! should think Philip really to be dreaded, if I saw him raised by honourable means. When forces join in harmony and affection, and one common interest unites confederating powers, then they share the toils with alacrity, and endure distresses with perseverance. But when extravagant ambition and lawless power, as in the case of Philip, have aggrandized a single person, the first pretence, the slightest accident, overthrows him, and dashes his greatness to the ground. For, it is not possible, Athenians! it is not possible, to found a lasting power upon injustice, perjury, and treachery. These may perhaps succeed for once, and borrow for a while, from hope, a gay and a flourishing appearance. But time betrays their weakness, and they fall of themselves to ruin. For, as in structures of every kind, the lower parts should have the firmest stability, so the grounds and principles of great enterprises should be justice and truth. But this solid foundation is wanting to all the enterprises of Philip.

Ifence among his confederates, there are many who hate, who

distrust, who envy him. If you will exert yourselves as your honour and your interest require, you will not only discover the weakness and insincerity of his confederates, but the ruinous condition also of his own kingdom. For you are not to imagine, that the inclinations of his subjects are the same with those of their prince. He thirsts for glory; but they have no part in this ambition. Harassed by those various excursions he is ever making, they groan under perpetual calamity; torn from their business and their families; and beholding commerce excluded from their coasts. All those glaring exploits, which have given him his apparent greatness, have wasted his natural strength, his own kingdom, and rendered it much weaker than it originally was. Besides, his profligacy and baseness, and those troops of buffoons, and dissolute persons, whom he caresses and constantly keeps about him, are, to men of just discernment, great indications of the weakness of his mind. At present,his successes cast a shade over these things; but let his arms meet with the least disgrace, his feebleness will appear, and his character be exposed. For, as in our bodies, while a man is in apparent health, the effect of some inward debility, which has been growing upon him, may, for a time, be concealed; but as soon as it comes the length of disease, all his secret infirmities show themselves, in whatever part of his frame the disorder is lodged: so, in states and monarchies, while they carry on a war abroad, many defects escape the general eye; but, as soon as wer reaches their own territory, their infirmities come forth to general observation.

'Fortune has great inficence in all human affairs; but I, for my part, should prefer the fortune of Athens, with the least degree of vigour in asserting your cause, to this man's fortune. For we have many better reasons to depend upon the favour of Heaven than this man. But, indeed, he who will not exert his own strength, hath no title to depend either on his friends, or on the gods. Is it at all surprising that he, who is himself ever amidst the labours and dangers of the field; who is every where; whom no cpportunity escapes; to whom no season is unfavourable; should be superion to you, who are wholly engaged in contriving delays, and framing decrees, and inquiring after news. The contrary would be much more surprising, if we, who have never hitherto acted as became a state engaged in war, should conquer one who acts, in every instance, with indefatigable vigilance. It is this, Athenians! it is this which gives him all his advantage against you. Philip, constantly surrounded by his troops, and perpetually engaged in projecting his designs, can, in a moment, strike the blow where he pleases. But we, when any acci dent alarms us, first appoint our Trierarchs; then we allow them the exchange by substitution; then the supplies are considered; next, we resolve to man our fleet with strangers and foreigners; then find it necessary to supply their place ourselves. In the midst of these delays, what we are failing to defend, the enemy is already master of; for the time of action is spent by us in preparing; and the issues of war will not wait for our slow and irresolute measures.

Consider, then, your present situation, and make such provision as the urgent danger requires. Talk not of your ten thousands, or your twenty thousand foreigners; of those armies which appear so magnificent on paper only; great and terrible in your decrees, in execution weak and contemptible. But let your army be made up chiefly of the native forces of the state; let it be an Athenian strength to which you are to trust; and whomsoever you appoint as general, let them be entirely under his guidance and authority. For ever since our armies have been formed of foreigners alone, their victories have been gained over our allies and confederates only, while our enemies have risen to an extravagant power.'

The orator goes on to point out the number of forces which should be raised; the places of their destination; the season of the year in which they should set out; and then proposes, in form, his motion, as we would call it, or his decree, for the necessary supply of money, and for ascertaining the funds from which it should be raised. Having finished all that relates to the business under de liberation, he concludes these orations on public affairs, commonly with no longer peroration than the following, which terminates the first Philippic; ' I, for my part, have never, upon any occasion, chosen to court your favour by speaking any thing but what I was convinced would serve you. And on this occasion, you have heard my sentiments freely declared, without art, and without reserve. I should have been pleased, indeed, that, as it is for your advantage to have your true interest laid before you, so I might have been assured, that he who layeth it before you would share the advantage. But uncertain as I know the consequence to be with respect to myself, I yet determined to speak, because I was convinced that these measures, if pursued, must prove beneficial to the public. And, of all those opinions which shall be offered to your acceptance, may the gods determine that to be chosen which will best advance the general welfare!'

These extracts may serve to give some imperfect idea of the manner of Demosthenes. For a juster and more complete one, recourse must be had to the excellent original.

QUESTIONS,

AFTER the preliminary views which what is observed? Of this division, have been given of the nature of elo- what is remarked? What division will quence in general, and of the state in suit our purpose better, and be found which it has subsisted in different ages more useful? How does this division and countries, upon what are we now coincide with the ancient one; but to enter? Into what three kinds did with what exception? What belongs the ancients divide all orations; and to all three? But before proceeding to what was the scope of each? What them, what does our author intend to were the chief subjects of demonstra-show; and why? How is this illusive eloquence? In what was the deli-trated? What shall our author lay perative employed; and of the judicial, aside; and with what will he begin?

Where is the most august theatre of say? But after some performances of this kind of eloquence to be found? this kind shall have given him boldWhere, also, may it display itself; and ness, what will he find to be a better where may it take place? What is its method? Of what advantage will these object; and what must there always short notes be? To what does this lead be? In all attempts to persuade men, our author in the next place to obupon what principle must we proceed? serve? By this, what does he not What is a most erroneous opinion; and mean? But, though the method be not what remark follows? Why will the laid down in form, yet what follows? show of eloquence which they make, What will every one who speaks find of please only the trifling and superficial? great advantage? What will be the Of whatever rank the hearer may be, effect of this? With respect to hearers, what is the speaker never to presume? what is observed; and what is its efWhy is it a dangerous experiment? fect? What is, therefore, observed; How is this remark illustrated? When, and why? Of what is our author hereparticularly, ought public speakers to after to treat? What shall we now be careful not to trifle with their hear-consider; and of them, what is obserers? What should ever be kept in ved? Of the effect of the aspect of a view? How is this illustrated; and large assembly, what is observed; and hence, what follows? In preference to why? What have then their proper what, should public speaking set such a place; and what form the peculiar pattern as this before them? In address- characteristics of popular eloquence, in ing a popular assembly, what should be its highest degree of perfection? their first study? What will be the ef Of the liberty which we are now fect of this; and what will follow? giving, of the strong and passionate What says Quintilian? What is the manner to this kind of oratory, what is next requisite, in order to be a persua- observed? What is the first restraint, sive speaker in a popular assembly? and why? For what is there most freWhat should we never espouse; and quent occasion; and what follows? why? What only carries conviction? What is the second restraint? What is In a former lecture, what was obser- always its effect; and why? How is ved? Of this, what is here observed; this illustrated? What is here the great and what follows? What do young rule? In what manner may one be a people consider useful? But of what is speaker both of reputation and influour author afraid? Under what circum-ence? But to attain the pathetic and stances only should they allow them-sublime in oratory, what is required? selves such a liberty? Why is it not, What is the third restraint? What reeven in such meetings, recommended mark follows? What must he not do; as the most useful exercise? By pur- how must he begin; and why? Let a suing this course, what habit will they speaker have ever so good reason to be acquire? Where is it particularly dan-animated, and fired by his subject, what gerous for young practitioners to make is always expected of him? What has use of this sort of play of speech; and a wonderful effect both to please and why? What do debates in popular to persuade? Of it, what is remarked? courts seldom allow the speaker? To What is the fourth restraint? Why is what must the arguments be suited; this direction given? Of this, what is and what follows? Against what is observed? For what is it no reason? there a general prejudice; and when But for what is it a reason? What is only have they any propriety? As the done by Demosthenes, in order to justidebate advances, why are they un-fy the unsuccessful action of Cherosuitable? Against what does this not næa? What is also done by Cicero, conclude; and of the neglect of it, what and of both passages, what is observed? is observed? What kind of premedita- What remark follows? What is the tion is most advantageous? With re-fifth and last restraint? What cannot gard to the matter, and with .egard to atone for neglect of these? How is this the words and expression, what is ob- remark illustrated? What says Quinserved? Until what period may it be tilian? No one should ever rise to speak proper for a young person to commit to in public, without first doing what? memory the whole of what he has to Where, among the ancients, shall we

find this particularly insisted on? Re-tracts from Demosthenes inserted? Uncite the admonition contained in Cicero's der the great disadvantage of an Engoration, ad Brutum. What should the lish translation, what will they exhibit? current style be? Of quaint and artifi- Whence are the following; and of cial expressions, what is here observed? them, what is observed? How are the What should be studied; and what, extracts selected; and why? What is when properly introduced, produces a the subject of the orations? What dishappy effect? Under what circum-position did the Athenians manifest? stances may some inaccuracies be over- In this critical conjuncture, who arose; looked? When do they escape? With and in what manner does he begin his regard to the degree of conciseness or first Philippic? (The following extracts diffuseness, what is observed? What should be carefully committed.) manner has commonly been recommended? What, however, is our author inclined to think? Of what is there no doubt? To do what must care be

ANALYSIS.

1. The eloquence of popular assemblies.

A. Its foundation.

B. The speaker himself should be
persuaded of what he recom-
mends to others.

c. Preparative directions.
D. The style of popular eloquence.
a. The warmth should be suited

taken; but of this care, what is obser- The different kinds of public speaking. ved? Of a loose and verbose manner, what is remarked? What had we better de? Of what is our author afterwards to treat? At present, what is it sufficient to observe? What manner should always be shunned? But what | may be assumed even by a modest man? What does a feeble and hesitating manner bespeak; and what is said of it? What is the end of popular speaking; and on what must it be founded? If we would be speakers of business, and not mere declaimers, what must be the basis? On what should we be engaged in earnest; and what should we utter? Of what should the premeditation be? How is this illustrated? With what remark is this head concluded? Why are the following ex

to the subject.

b. It should never be counterfeited.

c. It should not be carried too far. d. The public ear should be regarded.

e. The decorums of time, place &c. should be attended to. 2. Extracts from Demosthenes' ora tions.

LECTURE XXVIII.

ELOQUENCE OF THE BAR.-ANALYSIS OF CICERO'S ORATION FOR CLUENTIUS.

I TREATED in the last lecture of what is peculiar to the eloquence of popular assemblies. Much of what was said on that head is applicable to the eloquence of the bar, the next great scene of public speaking, to which I now proceed, and my observations upon which will therefore be the shorter. All, however, that was said in the former lecture, must not be applied to it; and it is of importance that I begin with showing where the distinction lies.