have ever approached-a high and philosophic vein of morality:

"Divine philosophy,

Not harsh and rugged, as dull fools suppose,

But musical as is Apollo's lute;"

deep and grand thoughts fetched from the exhaustless fountains of the great minds of old-his beloved Plato and the Stagyrite thoughts fresh with the immortality of their birthplace.

CHAPTER X.

BUTLER AND DRYDEN.

The Commonwealth and the Restoration-Milton and Butler-Subject and Nature of Hudibras - Hudibras and Don Quixote-State of Society at the Restoration-Butler's Life - John Dryden-French Taste of the Court-Comedies and Rhymed Tragedies - Life and Works of Dryden-Dramas-Annus Mirabilis-Absalom and Achitophel-Religio Laici-Hind and Panther-Dryden's later WorksTranslation of Virgil - Odes-Fables-Prefaces and Dedications-Juvenal-Mac Flecknoe.

THE great productions of literature may be looked at under two different aspects or relations. Every illustrious name in letters may be considered as typifying and expressing some great and strongly marked epoch in the history of man in general, and also as the offspring and embodiment of some particular era, or some peculiar state of feeling existing in the nation of which that name is an ornament: that is to say, criticism may be general or particular, cosmopolite or national. Thus Milton, viewed as a colossal intellect, without any reference to his particular century or country, may be looked upon as the type and offspring of the Reformation and of the republican spirit combined; regarded with reference to England and the seventeenth century, he will be found to embody the Commonwealth-that stirring and extraordinary period of British history, when the united influences of those two mighty phenomena were acting on a stage sufficiently limited, and during a period sufficiently short, to enable us to form a clear and well-defined idea of their character. The period at which Milton wrote was, as we have seen, a period of vehement struggle between powerful and opposite principles: and if in the illustrious author of Paradise Lost' we find the eloquent assertor of the liberty of the press, and the uncompromising advocate for democratic forms of government, we cannot be surprised if we behold, in the ranks of the royalist

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party, a mighty champion of monarchy, and an irresistible satirist of the follies and vices of the republicans. This champion, this satirist, is Samuel Butler, perhaps the greatest master who ever lived of the comic or burlesque species of satiric writing a strange and singular genius, whose powers of ridicule were as incomparable as the story of his life is melancholy. In point of learning, vast, multifarious, and exact, he was no unworthy rival of Milton: in originality of conception and brilliancy of form his work is unequalled; indeed, 'Hudibras' is one of those productions which may be said to stand alone in literature. It is not to be denied that the reputation obtained out of England by this extraordinary work is by no means commensurate with its real merit as an effort of genius and originality, or with the vast store of wisdom and of wit contained in its pages; nor is it even probable that this indifference to its merits will ever at any future period be less than it has hitherto been, or than it is at present. It arises from a very natural cause. The subject of Butler's satire was too local and temporary to command that degree of attention in other countries, without which the highest powers of humour and imagination will have been exerted in vain. It is undoubtedly true that the vices, the crimes, the follies so pitilessly ridiculed in 'Hudibras' are common to mankind in almost every state of civilised society; but we must no less remember that some of the more prominent of them never burst forth into so full a bloom of absurdity and extravagance as they did at the memorable epoch of English history which he has caricatured. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate form a revolutionary epoch, and, like all epochs of revolution, were fertile in strong contrasts of political and social physiognomy. Such periods, acting, as they so powerfully do, upon the manners of a people, are admirably suited for the purposes of the satiric poet. At such times the elements of faction, the extravagances of opinion, of sentiment, of manners, of costume, are brought prominently out upon the surface of society, and present themselves, so to say, in a condensed and tangible form, which the satirist has only to copy to produce a vivid and striking picture-fortunate, too, if a future age, free from these violent agitations and strong

contrasts, does not charge him with exaggeration, and mistake the grotesque but faithful delineations of his pencil for the sportiveness of caricature. Curious as they are to the moral speculator, and full of matter to the studious searcher into the history of party, the absurdities of that legion of fanatical sects by whom the destinies of England were then swayed are neither sufficiently attractive or picturesque in themselves, nor sufficiently well known to the general European reader, for Butler's admirable pictures of them to be generally studied or understood out of England; for with political satire, no less than political caricature, much of the point of the jest is lost to those who are not able to judge of the likeness. It may be objected that, to the great body of English readers, the very considerable time that has elapsed since the occurrences took place which Butler has ridiculed, and the total disappearance of the things and the men represented in his poem, must have rendered them as strange and almost as unintelligible as they are to the non-English reader, from remoteness of place as well as distance of time, and dissimilarity of manners, customs, and sentiments. This is undoubtedly true to some extent: but the intensely idiomatic spirit of this excellent writer has given to his work a sap and a vitality which no obsoleteness of subject could destroy. An immense number of his verses have passed into the ordinary everyday language of his countrymen: containing, as they often do, the condensed thought of proverbs, they have fixed themselves on the memory of the people by their proverb-like oddity and humour of expression, and often by the quaint jingle of their rhymes. Thus multitudes of Butler's couplets float loosely in the element of ordinary English dialogue, and are often heard from the mouths of men who are themselves ignorant of the source of these very expressions, and who possibly hardly know that such a poet as Butler and such a poem as "Hudibras' ever existed, The fundamental idea of Hudibras' is, in our opinion, singularly happy. The title of the poem, which is also the name of its hero, is taken from the old romances of chivalry, Sir Hugh de Bras being the appellation of one of the knights (an Englishman, too, according to the legend) of Arthur's fabulous Round Table. Much also of the structure

of the poem is a kind of burlesque of those ancient romances ; and the very versification itself is the rhymed octosyllable so much employed by the Norman trouvères, a measure singularly well adapted for continuous and easy narrative, and consequently peculiarly fit for burlesque. Of comic poetry, part of whose humour consists in a resemblance or contrast between a ludicrous imitation and a serious or elevated original, there are two principal species. In the one, the characters, events, language, and style of a sublime and pathetic work are retained, but mingled with mean and ludicrous objects; as when the heroes of the Iliad' are represented as cowards, gluttons, and thieves: and in the other, trivial or ridiculous personages and events are described with a pomp of language and an affected dignity of style wholly disproportioned to their real importance. The former species of writing, it is hardly necessary to say, is called burlesque, and the second mock-heroic. Of the first kind are the innumerable travesties of the ancient poets; and of the second both the French literature and the English possess excellent specimens, though the Lutrin' is not to be compared to the Rape of the Lock.' Although both these kinds of comic writing may appear to have been the offspring of a considerably advanced period of literature, it is nevertheless certain that specimens of them are to be found at an exceedingly early epoch-even in the very infancy of poetry in the heroic age, and in its second birth or avatar of the romantic or chivalric period of the Middle Ages. We need only mention, in proof of our first proposition, the 'Battle of the Frogs and Mice,' falsely, it is obvious, ascribed to Homer, but still a work of very high antiquity; and also we may refer to many of the comedies of Aristophanes. As to our second position—that in which we speak of the existence in the Middle Ages of this kind of comic writing-it will be necessary to refer rather more fully to the literature of that early period, not only because this section of it is less likely to be familiar to our readers, but also because it bears more immediately upon the subject in hand-Hudibras' being, to a certain degree, a burlesque of the tales of chivalry which form the staple of mediæval literature. We have, then, numberless proofs that the solemn, wonderful, and stately romance of the trouvère