opening to designing men to misrepresent the policy of the government. At Shahabad, Behar, Patna, and Sarun, there were serious disturbances. Benares itself, the very nursery of Hindooism, was saved only by prudential concessions from becoming the scene of a sanguinary outbreak. All this occurred between 1845 and 1852. Hindoo misconstruction and discontent were reinforced by Mohammedan mendacity and curiosity, for the Moulavee was scarcely less alarmed than the Pundit by the tendency of our educational measures, and many old Mussulman families resented the resumption of the land tenures. To all these elements of discord must be added the predisposition to mutiny of the Sepoy soldier, irritated by the uncertainty which prevailed with respect to pay and allowances, secretly emboldened by concession and unable to reconcile himself to the British theory of annexation. The annexation of Oude, in particular, weakened the attachment of the Sepoy to his colors, till, finding what the revolution had cost him, he was ready to join hands with other sufferers over a common grief." In 1801 the Newab Wuzeer entered into engagements with the British Government for the good administration of the provinces in question. How these engagements were violated may be learned from page 120 of Mr. Kaye's volume. A succession of rulers in Oude abandoned themselves to sensual pollution, neglected State affairs, and trafficked in place, honor, and justice; corruption, murder, extortion, outrage, and robbery were the characteristics of their reign. A crisis occurred while Lord Auckland was GovernorGeneral of India. The new king pledged himself to sign a new treaty. This treaty provided, that in case of prolonged misrule the British Government should be entitled to appoint its own functionaries to the management of any part of the province; that there should be a new military force, commanded by British officers, but supported by the Oude Government; but the revenues of the country were not to be applied to any other purpose than that of its maintenance. This treaty, which Mr. Kaye disparages as an abortion, was often cited in later years as the Oude Treaty of 1887. It was, he says, wholly and absolutely disallowed by the Home Government-that is to say, he explains in a note, by the Secret Committee specially empowered by Act of Parliament. If this be so, it is unfortunate that Lord Auckland had too much pride to acknowledge its nulity; unfortunate that-though in 1838 the Home Government in general terms denied the existence of any treaty with the King of Oude, duly ratified and approved-the treaty, years after this date, was still held to be valid, and described as such by Colonel Sleeman in a letter to Sir James Hogg. It is still further unfortunate-if indeed we ought not to substitute throughout a stronger term-that it crept by mistake into a collection of treaties, under the auspices of an Under-Secretary. So matters stood when, in 1852, the misrule in Oude was of so fearful a description that Colonel Sleeman, who was opposed to annexation, advised the new Governor-General, Lord Dalhousie, to assume the administration, but not to grasp the revenues of the country. In defiance of advice and warnings, Lord Dalhousie proposed that the King of Oude should vest all power, jurisdiction, rights, and claims thereto belonging, in the hands of the East India Company, "and that the surplus revenues should be at the disposal of the Company." The province, however, declared British territory was, according to this scheme, not to be incorporated with the British do minions. The scheme did not in itself exclude annexation, but "the distinction without a difference" upheld by the Governor-General was overlooked by the Government at home, the Court of Directors, the Board of Control, and the British Cabinet all consenting to the annexation of Oude. The annexation of Oude accordingly took place. It was the last act of Lord Dalhousie's government. The processes of settlement and resumption now came into operation. The bad feeling engendered by the appropriation, and which in happier times might have gradually died out, was sustained and invigorated by a combination of maleficent influences. First, there was an impression that our resources were exhausted by the Crimean and by the Persian wars. Then the animosity of the ejected nobles and Brahminical party was inflamed and extended by the cartridge panic, which, in Mr. Kaye's belief, was a real motive, and by the movement under Nana Sahib, whose claim, he thinks, did not receive the consideration to which it was entitled. The account of the increasing disaffection occasioned by the greased cartridges and the bone-dust flour, and of the various outbreaks which ensued, carries the narrative down to the insurrection at Meerut, with which critical event Mr. Kaye concludes the first volume of this excellent history. The biographical notices of the Lawrences, Dalhousie, Canning, and other eminent men, in whom Mr. Kaye recognizes the existence of high, sometimes supremely high, moral and intellectual qualities, are clear, discriminating, and vividly written, and much of the expository portion of the book is valuable for its perspicuous statement and philosophical insight. In the two volumes intended to complete the work-the publication of which we shall gladly welcome-the author promises to describe the progress of the mutiny and rebellion in the North-Western provinces, the mutiny in the Punjab, the rebellion in Oude, the rising in Behar, the insurrection in the Southern Mahratta country, the siege and capture of Delhi, and the first relief of Lucknow. The third volume will comprise a narrative of the operations of the army under Sir Colin Campbell, of the recovery of Oude, of the campaign in Central India, and finally of those measures by which Lord Canning sought to restore confidence to the princes and people of India, and general prosperity to the land.-Westminster Review. SCIENCE. Heat.-Professor Tyndall has communicated to the Royal Society the results of his important researches on the invisible heat radiation of the electric light. The distribution of heat in the spectrum of the electric light was examined by means of a linear thermo-electric pile. The electric spectrum was formed by lenses and prisms of pure rock-salt, its width being equal to the length of the row of elements forming the pile. The latter standing at right angles to the length o the spectrum was caused to pass through its various colors in succession, and to search the spaces beyond the region of color in both directions. As is in the case of the solar spectrum the heat was found to augment from the violet to the red, while the maximum heating effect was observed beyond the red. The augmentation of temperature beyond the red in the case of the electric light is sudden and enormous, being much greater than that obtained by Professor Müller for the solar spectrum. Aqueous vapor acts powerfully upon the invisible rays, and doubtless the action of this substance in our atmosphere has modified the intensity of the rays beyond the red. In the experiments now to be referred to, the rays from the electric light were converged by a small concave glass mirror silvered at the back. It was brought so near the electric light as to cast an image of the coal points five or six inches in advance of the light. A solution of iodine in bisulphide of carbon contained in a rock-salt cell was then placed in front of the lamp; the whole of the luminous rays where thereby cut off, the dark heat rays only coming to a focus. In this focus of intense heat, in which nothing whatever is visible to the sight, what will take place if a solid body is introduced? Will the body become red or white hot; that is to say, will the long vibrations of the heat rays be exalted in refrangibility and vibrate in a quicker period? We know that rays can be lowered in refrangibility, but the possibility of rays of low refrangibility being raised higher has been denied by some physicists on theoretical grounds. The experiments of Professor Tyndall have conclusively settled the question, and proved that rays can be transmitted upwards, as well as downwards. Petroleum.-The use of petroleum as steam fuel in place of coal, is attracting considerable attention. Mr. C. J. Richardson is conducting experiments at Woolwich Dockyard, with the view to test the capability of petroleum to supersede coal and other fuel on board ship. Dr. Paul has published some calculations, in which he attempts to prove that the proposed application of it is based upon erroneous impressions respecting the composition and character of petroleum as compared with coal. He starts with the statement that the oil can be so utilized that one ton is equal for steam purposes to five tons of coal. Now, the specific gravitity of coal being about 1:44, while that of petroleum is from 0.80 to 0.85, the weight of a cubic foot of these materials would be respectively-coal 90lbs., and petroleum 50lbs to 53lbs. But since petroleum, being liquid, lies in a more compact manner than coal, in estimating the spaces occupied by these materials an allowance of one-third should be made for the interstices or empty spaces between the lumps of coal; so that the spaces occupied by equal weights of coal and petroleum are about as 1 is to 1.2 or 14. Then the relative heating-power of equal weights of coal and petroleum, depending upon their respective chemical composition, are in the following ratio:-Calorific power-coal, 102, petroleum, 1.50; and the spaces occupied by quantities of petroleum and of coal would be in the ratio of 1 to 1-16; a difference in favor of petroleum too small to admit of any advantage being gained in regard to stowage. The question of price, moreover, must not be left out in such discussions. Dr. Paul argues that, since the price of petroleum varies from 157, to 207, per ton, while that of coal used for steam-vessels varies from under 17. to 37. 10s., the cost of equal quantities of heat produced from these materials would be, under the most favorable circumstances, as in the ratio of 157, to 4l. In addition to this, the highly inflammable nature of petroleum must be considered. Its storage on board a ship would require the use of air-tight vessels, and even then there might be considerable risk of the production of explosive mixtures of the petroleum vapor and air. What, asks Dr. Paul, would be the condition of a vessel of war provided with petroleum as fuel if a shot penetrated the vessel containing the petroleum, and allowed it to escape in proximity to the boiler fires? With an eight-inch mirror behind the electric light, the opaque solution of iodine in front, and the focus of invisible rays about six inches distant from the electric light, the following effects have been obtained-Wood painted black, when brought into the dark focus, emits copious volumes of smoke, and is soon kindled at the two spots on which the images of the two coal points fall. A piece of brown paper placed near the focus soon shows a burning surface which spreads over a considerable space, the paper finally bursting into flame. The end of a cigar placed at the dark focus is instantly ignited. A piece of charcoal suspended in a receiver of oxygen is ignited in the dark focus and caused to burn brilliantly. In answer to these objections of Dr. Paul, Mr. A mixture of oxygen and hydrogen is exploded Richardson, the patentee, asserts that the relative in the dark focus by the ignition of its envelope. heating-powers of petroleum and coal, as dependMagnesium wire presented suitably to the focus, ing upon their chemical composition, is not the burns with its intensely luminous flame. In all question; the ability of each to create steam is these cases the effect was due in part to chemical the real matter to be considered. Petroleum, as action; this, however, may be excluded. For steam fuel, can be very nearly fully utilized ; instance, platinized platinum in thin leaf may be it produces no ash, submits to mechanical manrendered white hot, and on it is depicted an in- agement, and makes little or no smoke; does not candescent image of the coal points. When the require any strong draught or current of air like points are drawn apart or caused to approach coal, which will not burn without it, the conseeach other, their incandescent images conform quence being that a very considerable portion of to their motion. Professor Tyndall proposes that the fuel is lost, as waste heat, in the chimney. the assemblage of phenomena here described, and In careful experiments by Mr. Wye Williams, to others to be referred to in his completed memoirs, ascertain the best form of boiler to obtain the should be expressed by the term "calorescence." greatest amount of heat from coal, he gives the This word involves no hypothesis, and it harmo- temperature of the waste heat in the first experinizes well with the term fluorescence, now uni- ment as 1060°; in the second, 760°; and in the versally employed with reference to the more re-third, 635°. If these are the temperatures, with a frangible end of the spectrum.-Quarterly Jour- consumption of only three-and-a-half cwt, of coal nal of Science. In connection with this subject we may mention an electric brake which has been recently under experiment on the Strasburg Railway. system of brakes attached to any number of carriages in a train is brought into operation by interrupting an electric current by means of a little apparatus attached to the tender, and thus under the control of the driver. When contact is made, and the current is established again, the brakes cease to act. Connected with this is an arrangement by which the guard and even the passengers can communicate with the enginedriver. The experiments made showed that all the contrivances were perfectly effective, trains going at great speed being brought to rest in a distance of 250 to 300 metres, instead of from 1,200 to 1,500 as by the usual system of brakes. in each experiment, what would be the tempera-second; the square of th of which is 516.55, ture of the waste heat in the chimney of a furnace which is the height to which a body moving upburning from twenty to thirty tons of coals per ward at this speed would rise. Were this elecday? We know the current is so strong that it trical horse to make a turn upwards at an angle of often carries up small coal and cinders along with 45°, he would describe a parabola 258 feet high it; that the heated gases often take fire by a and 1,032 feet long. spark from the furnace, and burn at the top of the funnel with a fierceness almost equalling the flame from a blast furnace. Is this flame or waste heat employed in creating steam? And how much of the coal is utilized? In practice, Mr. Richardson says, the ratio of the heatingpower of petroleum and coal is about 1-4 to 0-4. The patented grate, which burns petroleum through a porous matter, proves that one ton of petroleum does as much work as five tons of coal. If four tons out of five are saved for freight space, the price of the latter being 7. per ton, the profit on every ton of petroleum would be 147. 158.-the coal at 15s., the petroleum at 172. per ton. But a ship-owner might not select the American crude oil at 17.; he could take the Flintshire coal oil, which is quite as good for his purpose, and costs only about 10%, per ton. The average price of coal on a long voyage would be low at 27, per ton. Taking the prices and the freight at the reduced sum of 57. per ton in a ship requiring 500 tons of coal, and using instead 100 tons of petroleum, the profit by the exchange would be 2,000. Respecting the highly dangerous inflammable nature of petroleum, Mr. Richardson considers it to be greatly exaggerated. If the oil were contained in cast-iron cases, securely closed, no vapor could escape; or if the small amount of spirit which produces the inflammable vapor was first extracted, the residue, the burning oil and heavy petroleum, would be no more dangerous than so much lard or spermaceti.-Quarterly Journal of Science. Electricity. The adaptation of electricity to the production of motive force is attracting considerable attention in France just now. MM. Bellet and Rouve are exhibiting at Versailles a small locomotive driven by electricity. This certainly merits some attention since the inventors do not seem to claim any extraordinary powers for their machine. They only propose it for carrying light weights, such as letters by an underground railway. The driving-wheel of the engine is made of copper, through which at equidistant intervals pass a series of horse-shoe electro-magnets-twenty in the whole circumference. The current is made to pass successively through these magnets, contact being made and broken by means of two discs at the axis of the wheel, the iron rail attracting these magnets causes the rotation of the wheel, and in the absence of great weight the vehicle progresses at an extraordinary speed; locomotives on this plan being asserted to be able to travel with ease on existing railways at a rapidity of 120 miles an hour. The batteries are placed at the termini to save the weight and the carriage, and the current is conveyed by insulated wires running between the rails and over a roller in the locomotive. With respect to this plan an American paper enters into some curious calculations as to what such an engine would do in the way of jumping. The velocity is 181-825 feet per With an improved method of pointing pins and needles, we will conclude our chronicles of physics for this quarter. It is known that if the two electrodes of copper, iron, or steel, are set vertically in acidulated water, and reaching nearly to each other, the positive very quickly becomes pointed. The experiment can of course be made by making the positive pole of a number of wires, and carefully regulating the negative pole. Two or three Bunsen's cells only are required to do the work. Considering the diseases which arise from pointing pins and needles in the usual way, this method, which is a discovery of M. Cauderay, certainly deserves attention, although some supplementary polishing would seem to be inevitably required.-Ibid. year Royal and Imperial Honors.-The author of the fine Epic poem, "Pelayo,' of the "Olden Moorish Times," Mrs. E. T. Porter Beach, of New York, received from the Empress of France, a gold Medal of rare beauty and value, since, and quite recently, as we learn, has received from the Queen of Spain a golden Bracelet, massive, elaborately wrought, richly enameled, gemed with a large Oriental topaz of rare lustre and value, on the centre of which is the cipher of her Majesty set in diamonds-at the top of this stone, a crown of diamonds, on either side and at its base pure pearls of great size. The bracelet contains sixty-three diamonds, and was accompanied by complimentry letters from the Spanish Minister, and the American Charge d' Affairs, who expressed his special gratification for the royal honor paid to his gifted country woman. As the Empress and Queen of Spain are both natives of that country, they both express their high gratification on the perusal of this fine poem so rich in its historic allusions to Spanish scenes and incidents, in Moorish annals. The private Secretary of her Majesty was commanded by the Queen to express in her royal name her great pleasure in "Pelayo," as descriptive of her people and country. The poem is beautifully published by the Appletons. |