before the departure of the train. Any passenger in the cars without a ticket is charged double fare up to the next station, where he must get his ticket. For baggage the weight of 30 kilos (66 pounds) is allowed free, besides all a passenger chooses to take with him in the car that may not annoy his neighbor. Fondas or places of refreshment are established at various stations, furnishing a very good meal for 14 r. v. (70 cents). Where stations are at some distance from a city, a service of omnibuses is found-fare 2 r. v., or 10 cents. As elsewhere, commutation and excursion tickets are issued when needed.

STRACHAN, JOHN, D. D., LL. D., Bishop of Toronto, born in Aberdeen, Scotland, April 12, 1778; died at Toronto, November 1st. His early years were spent at school, and in 1796 he finished his course at King's College, Aberdeen. Soon afterward he removed to the vicinity of St. Andrews, where he contracted many important and lasting friendshipsamongst others, with Thomas Duncan and Dr. Chalmers. He then became teacher of the Grammar School at Cornwall, and had among his pupils many who became prominent men. Among others, was the celebrated painter, Sir David Wilkie. The teacher soon perceived Wilkie's genius, and with much difficulty persuaded his uncle to send him to the celebrated Raeburn, then enjoying the highest reputation in Scotland. Often did Sir David, at the height of his fame, declare that he owed every thing to his reverend teacher, and that but for his interference he must have remained in obscurity.

It is a somewhat singular fact that although Bishop Strachan had been educated as a Presbyterian, he was selected by Colonel Graves Simcoe, then Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada, to superintend the introduction of a system of education which was contemplated for the benefit of the province, and which consisted in establishing grammar-schools in every district, and a university at their head, at the seat of government. He sailed from Greenock in August, 1799, with the intention of entering upon the duties to which he had been appointed. Reaching Kingston, on the last day of the year, he was greatly disappointed to learn that Governor Simcoe had some time before returned to England, and that the scheme of establishing the proposed university had been abandoned. In the mean while Dr. Strachan obtained employment as a private tutor, and devoted his leisure time during the three years of his engagement to the study of divinity, with a view of entering the Church at its expiration. In May, 1803, he was ordained a deacon by the Right Rev. Dr. Mountain, the first Protestant Bishop of Quebec; and in 1804 was admitted to orders and appointed to the mission of Cornwall. His degree of D. D. was conferred on him by the University of Aberdeen in 1807, and his degree of LL. D. by the University of St. Andrews the same year. He

was appointed Rector of York in 1812, and in 1825 Archdeacon of York. In 1839, the year before the Union Act was passed, he was appointed Bishop of Toronto, and the year following he resigned his place in the Legislative Council of Upper Canada. After that time he took no part in politics; but in the years previously, from 1818, when he was appointed an Executive Councillor, and had a seat given him in the Legislative Council, he took a very active one: and nothing could exceed the bitterness of the strife between his party on the one side, and that of Mr. W. L. Mackenzie on the other. The rebellion of 1837-'38, in Upper Canada, arose out of it. To his perseverance is due the establishment of the two universities in Toronto. During his councillorship, and at his suggestion, 57 rectories were erected in Upper Canada. In 1828 Dr. Strachan became Archdeacon of York. Eleven years later he was appointed Bishop of Toronto, and not until old age had begun to weaken him would he consent to share the burdens of his office with a coadjutor. As a bishop, Dr. Strachan ruled the Church. All men spoke well of him, even those who had been politically opposed to him with so much bitterness. And the Church of England greatly flourished under his administration. No breath of dishonor, even through the exceeding bitterness of the strife of faction, ever sullied his fair name. And he went down to his rest, not only full of years, but with more than the ordinary years of men, in peace, seeing his Church and country happy and flourishing, and giving good promise for the future.

SULPHUR PRODUCE OF ITALY, THE. The sulphur-mines of Italy have long been famous for their yield, and their present productiveness fully sustains their reputation. They are now producing something like 300,000 tons per annum, which, taken in the crude state, represents a money value of about £1,200,000. But their yield has only become so enormous in the course of years, the average yield for the year 1830 being but about one-tenth of the present yield. The greater part of the above quantity is derived from Sicily; the Romagna, however, commenced to increase the supply some seven years since, and in 1862 was contributing about 8,000 tons per annum, and this quantity has since been increased. For the last fourteen years an improved method of separating the sulphur from the accompanying limestone has been successfully practised in Sicily. The separation of the sulphur from gangue is always effected by liquation, the necessary heat for the fusion being obtained by burning a portion of the ore. This operation, which was formerly effected in small cylindrical open kilns, is, by the improved process, performed in heaps, which are often four hundred times the capacity of the kilns. The ore is arranged in a manner similar to that adopted in charcoal-burning, the air being excluded by an impermeable covering of earth.

The loss occasioned by the formation of sulphurous acid has been greatly reduced by the new process. The production is increased by onefifth, and the new heaps can be placed in the vicinity of houses and gardens without objection. Under the old system it was necessary to keep the heaps several miles away from dwellings and vegetation. The further advantage of the process is, that the heaps may be fired at any time, instead of large masses of ore being kept in reserve for ignition at a particular season of the year. Beyond this the process, which formerly was one of the most deadly nature, has been converted into one almost free from danger to the workmen.

A large portion of the island of Sicily is occupied by the gypsum and sulphur-bearing formation, which extends from Mount Etna to the neighborhood of Trapani The rate of productiveness diminishes toward Trapani, Caltanisetta and Girgenti boasting the best mines, Catania and Palermo those next in importance, whilst the least yielding are in the province of Trapani. In Sicily, as well as in the Romagna, the gypsum formation includes limestones, clays which are more or less marly, and beds of gypsum. In the latter rock, as well as in the limestones, the sulphur is found as a uniform or irregular mixture, sometimes concentrated in small parallel seams, and occasionally crystallized. In the latter case it is often associated with sulphate of strontia or celestine. The sulphur occurs in a different manner in the clays and slates, being found concentrated in globular masses. This method of occurrence is also common to all the sulphur mines of the Continent which are contained in argillaceous strata. Only a small portion of the sulphur obtained is refined on the island, the greater part being exported in the crude state. For commercial purposes it is classified into three general qualities, which are further divided into seven sub-classes. There are about fifty mines at present at work in Sicily, and the number of hands employed is over twenty thousand.

The Romagna Sulphur-Mining Company possesses eight mines, five of which are in the province of Forli, Romagna, whilst three are at Monte Feltre, in the province of Urbino and Pessaro, in the Marches. The refined produce is exported chiefly from Rimini, where the refining-works are situated, to the principal centres of consumption among the large towns of Italy. Refined sulphur is used in various manufactories for making sulphuric acid, and for several years past a new use has been found for it in the sulphuration of vines. In the course of scientific progress the general process, to which we have already alluded, has been improved in many minor details. But beyond this, an entirely new process is just reported to have been introduced by M. Brunfaut, a Belgian. The average composition of the sulphurstone of Romagna is, for every 100 parts, 30.60 of sulphur, 26.80 of lime, 41.20 of alumina and

silica, and 1.40 of water. By the ordinary method of extraction, only 10 of the 30 parts of sulphur are obtained; there is, therefore, a loss of upward of 20 per cent., which, of course, must influence not only the profits, but also the price of the article. These defects in the system appear to have been completely obviated by M. Brunfaut, who is said to obtain a yield of 25 per cent. instead of 10.

As already observed, the sulphur is contained only in a state of mixture in the Romagna stone, and, not being in chemical combination with any substance, is easily separated by fusion. The melting point of sulphur being extremely low, fusion may be effected by hot air or by steam, instead of in kilns or even heaps, where the excess of heat converts a large proportion of the substance into sulphurous acid. Taking advantage of this property of sulphur, M. Brunfaut employs an apparatus which consists of a horizontal cylinder, containing an archimedean screw throughout its whole length. The cylinder is made to revolve more or less slowly, according to the nature of the mineral to be treated. The sulphur ore is poured in through a funnel at one end of the cylinder, and when it has sufficiently undergone the action of the apparatus it is let out at the other end. The temperature in the cylinder is maintained by hot air or steam, which is introduced under a pressure of three atmospheres. By this machine 150 cubic metres of the mineral are reported to be disposed of in twentyfour hours. This economical method of extracting sulphur from its minerals is a matter of great importance to Italy, which is so rich in that valuable substance.

SWEDEN and NORWAY, two kingdoms in Northern Europe, united under one king. Present King, Charles XV., born May 3, 1826; succeeded his father on July 8, 1859. Area of Sweden and Norway, 292,440 square miles. Population of Sweden, according to the census of 1866, 4,160,677. The capital, Stockholm, had, in 1866, 138,189 inhabitants. (According to former censuses, the population was, in 1748, 1,736,482; in 1810, 2,377,851; in 1855, 3,641,011; in 1860, 3,859,728.) The population. of Norway was, according to the census of 1865, 1,701,478. The capital, Christiania, bad 65,513 inhabitants. The Swedish Island of St. Bartholomew, in the West Indies, had, in 1866, 2,898 inhabitants. In the Swedish budget for 1868, the revenue was estimated at 37,461,270 rix dollars, the ordinary expenditures at 34,054300; and the extraordinary expenditures at 7,438,621; probable deficit, 3,031,651. Public debt, in 1865, 74,068,000 rix dollars. The Swedish army consisted, in 1866, of 124,807 men. The fleet, in August, 1867, consisted of 17 armed steamers, carrying 132 guns. The imports, in 1865, were valued at 105,863,000, and the exports at 108,086,000 rix dollars. Number of vessels entering the Swedish ports, in 1865, 4,946; together of 164,637 lasts; number of clearances 9,458, together of 438,

792 lasts. The merchant navy consisted, in 1863, of 3,236 vessels, together of 86,404 lasts. In the Norwegian budget, for the period from 1866 to 1869, the annual revenue and expenditures are each fixed at 4,770,000 (Norwegian) dollars. The public debt, in 1865, amounted to 8,240,700 dollars. The army, on the peace footing, numbers 12,000, and on the war-footing 18,000. The landwehr is to be exclusively used for the defence of the country. The imports in 1865 were valued at 18,271,987, and the exports at 13,581,695 thalers. The number of vessels entering Norwegian ports, in 1865, was 12,451, together of 674,647. lasts; the number of clearances 12,271, together of 648,080 lasts. The merchant navy, in 1865, numbered 5,407 vessels, together of 352,949 lasts.

SWITZERLAND, a Federal Republic in Europe. Area, 15,933 square miles; population, in 1860, 2,510,494. President of the "Federal Council (the executive consisting of seven members), for the year 1867, Constantin Fornerod, of Vaud; Vice-President, Dr. Jacob Dubs, of Zurich. The President resigned in October, 1867, in order to take the chairmanship of the Swiss Credit Mobilier at Geneva, when the Vice-President took his place. Minister resident of the United States in Switzerland, George Harrington, appointed in 1865. The expenditures of the Confederation, in 1866, were 21,552,495 francs; the receipts, 20,103,283 francs; deficit, 1,449,212 francs. For the budget for 1867, the expenditures were estimated at 25,485,000 francs; the receipts at

TENNESSEE. A joint resolution was adopted by the Legislature of Tennessee in February, 1867, calling on the Federal Government, through General Thomas, for a sufficient military force to restore order and quiet in the State, and to preserve the peace. It was alleged in the preamble of this resolution that in several counties violence prevailed over civil law, and that riot and murder were committed with impunity. Governor Brownlow accordingly made application, on the 1st of March, to General Thomas for the required military force, and received the following reply from

that officer:

HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE TENNESSEE, LOUISVILLE, KY., March 7, 1867. To His Excellency Wm. G. Brownlow, Governor of Tennessee:

SIR: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your communication of March 1, 1867, covering a copy of a joint resolution of the General Assembly of Tennessee, adopted February 28, 1867, and applying, in accordance therewith, to the United States, through me, for a sufficient force of United States soldiers to keep the peace and restore order in such portions of the State as the civil authorities have proved themselves unable to control. The State of VOL. VII.-45

20,263,000 francs, and the deficit at 5,222,000 francs. The federal army comprises: 1. Regular army ("Bundesauszug "), consisting of the men from twenty to thirty years old, at the rate of 3 per cent. of the population. 2. The reserve, consisting of men who have served in the regular army, from thirty to forty years old, at the rate of 11 per cent. of the population. 3. The landwehr, consisting of all men able to carry arms, and aged less than forty-four years, who serve neither in the regular army nor in the reserve. In December, 1866, the regular army numbered 87,537 men; the reserve, 49,513; the landwehr, 66,955; total, 264,005.

In December the Swiss Federal Assembly elected Vice-President Dubs to be the President for 1868, and Councillor Weld to be Vice-President. M. Ruffy, of the Canton of Vaud, was elected the seventh member of the Federal Council in the place of M. Fornerod.

An important resolution was passed in December by the Grand Council of Berne. It decided, by one hundred and twenty-eight votes against seventy-five, that experience having shown the incompatibility of the observance of the legal dispositions concerning instruction with the absolute obedience which the members of religious orders owe to their superiors, no person belonging to any of those orders shall henceforth be admitted to the educational staff. All such teachers, attached to primary public schools, will be considered as having resigned. The adoption of this resolution produced a great excitement in the Catholic districts of the canton.

Tennessee has been declared by proclamation of the President of the United States to be no longer in rebellion, and that the laws can be enforced therein by proper civil authority, and the orders to me as military commander of this department are in accordance with said proclamation.

The troops under my command are available for assistance to the civil authorities in enforcing the laws and preserving order, and upon the application of your excellency a sufficient force for that purpose will be sent to any locality in the State of Tennessee that may be designated, but the troops will act as aids only to the properly constituted civil authorities, and not assume control of the citizens by virtue of military orders.

With any such application as your excellency may make, it is requested that the nature of the disorder requiring the force may be stated, and the authorities to whom the troops are to report may be particularly designated. I have the honor to be, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

GEORGE H. THOMAS, Major-General U. S. A., commanding. The Governor had already begun to organize a militia under the name of the State Guards, of which he retained the chief command in his own hands. The following passages are taken from his General Orders, No. 1:

HEADQUARTERS TENNESSEE STATE GUARDS,
NASHVILLE, March 6, 1967.

1. Captains of companies, to whom commissions have been forwarded, together with a copy of this order, are authorized to enlist for a period of three years, unless sooner discharged, one hundred ablebodied men, who, when enrolled, shall proceed to elect their other officers, who shall be commissioned when the captain shall certify the same to me at these headquarters, each company in the service to be mustered as infantry.

2. As many as twenty-five in each company shall be mounted to act as scouts, etc., under the command of such officers as the captains from time to time may designate.

For drunkenness, and a wilful neglect of duty, the commander-in-chief reserves to himself the right to dismiss any officer from the service, the charge being previously sustained.

5. Captains or lieutenants commanding companies or squads will see, on all occasions, that no man's premises are trespassed upon; that no poultry or stock is taken or killed; that no fence-rails are destroyed; no timber cut down and used without a fair compensation being paid; and that no grain or forage be taken without the consent of the owner, and then at the market value. These rules must be observed. 6. Every officer and private, before entering the service, shall take and subscribe the following oath:

"I do solemnly swear that I have never voluntarily borne arms against the Government of the United States, for the purpose or with the intention of aiding the late rebellion; nor have I, with any such intention, at any time, given aid, comfort, counsel, or encouragement to said rebellion, or to any act of hostility to the Government of the United States. I further swear, that I have never sought or accepted any office, either civil or military, under the authority, or pretended authority, of the so-called Confederate States of America, or of any insurrectionary State, hostile or opposed to the United States Government,

with the intent and desire to aid said rebellion; that I have never given a voluntary support to any such Government or authority. So help me God."

A subsequent order delegates the command of this force to General Jos. A. Cooper. In

this order he says:

2. There are now twelve companies ready for the service; and, although I find no trouble in raising companies, there will not be called into service more than twelve or fourteen companies, all told, unless the rebellious conduct of the people shall make it necessary to increase the force.

3. The length of time that this small force of State militia will be continued in the service depends entirely upon the conduct of the people. The indications are that we are to have disturbances at different points, prompted by bad and rebellious men; but in this, I hope, for the sake of the country, that I may be disappointed.

A new franchise law was enacted in February, which abolished all distinction on account of race or color in the qualification required of electors, but an attempt to admit colored persons to the privilege of sitting on juries was unsuccessful. Further disabilities, with regard to the exercise of the franchise, were imposed upon persons who had participated in any insurrectionary movements, either within the State or beyond its limits. The power of appointing commissioners of registration was given to the Governor, who was also invested with the authority to set aside the registration in any county where he was satisfied that any fraud or irregularity had been

employed in making such registration. With regard to the appointment of judges of elections, the former law provided that those officials should be chosen for each voting precinct by the County Court, at the session next preceding the day of election; and, in case the Court failed to appoint, or any person appointed refused to serve, "the sheriff, with the advice of three justices, or, if none be present, three respectable freeholders, shall, before the beginning of the election, appoint said inspectors or judges." The provision of the new law on this point is contained in the following section:

SEC. 10. Be it further enacted, That in case any County Court shall fail or refuse to induct into office any of the officers elected under this act, it shall be lawful for the commissioner of registration, upon orders from the Governor, to perform that duty, and to administer all necessary oaths, and to take and approve all necessary official bonds, and the same shall be good and valid in law. The judges and clerks of all elections shall hereafter be selected and appointed by the commissioner of registration in each county in the same manner, and governed by the same rules and laws heretofore provided by law, conferring the said selection and appointments by sheriffs.

A case was brought in the Supreme Court of the State to test the constitutionality of this franchise law, and a decision was rendered on the 21st of March sustaining its validity. The case was carried by appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States.

The election, at which a Governor and other State officers were to be chosen, occurred on the 1st of August. The nominating convention of the Republicans was held on the 22d of February, and decided that Wm. G. Brownlow was the choice of the party for Governor. A body of resolutions was adopted, setting forth the principles of the Republicans of Tennessee, approving of the past administration of GovernFederal Congress. The convention declared or Brownlow, and sustaining the action of the that the people of Tennessee looked upon General Geo. H. Thomas as their adopted son, the traitors, and as the man who never made a missavior of their State capital from the hands of take, and never lost a battle; and therefore it was "Resolved, That he is the choice of Tennessee for the next President of the United States."

The Conservative Convention met at Nashville on the 16th of April, and nominated Emerson Etheridge for Governor. The following is the platform adopted:

We, the Conservative Union men of Tennessee, adopt the following platform of principles:

1. We are in favor of the Union of the States, under the Constitution of the United States, and we pledge ourselves to support and defend the same. believe that these great objects can be best promoted 2. We are the friends of peace and civil law, and by legislation recognizing equal and exact justice to all, exclusive privileges to none.

3. We are in favor of the immediate restoration of leges, and immunities of full and complete citizenour disfranchised fellow-citizens to all rights, privi

ship.

4. That our colored fellow-citizens, being now citi

zens of the United States, and citizens of the State of Tennessee, and voters of this State, are entitled to all the rights and privileges of citizens under the laws and Constitution of the United States, and of the State of Tennessee.

5. We are opposed to the repudiation of the national debt, and are in favor of equal taxation as the proper method of paying the same.

6. That the establishment of a standing army in our State, in time of peace, is a flagrant and dangerous encroachment upon the rights and liberties of the citizens, heavily oppressive to the tax-payer, and evidently designed to overawe voters at the ballot-box.

7. We cordially approve of the patriotic efforts of Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, in defending the Constitution, preserving the Union of the States, and maintaining the supremacy of the

laws.

other.

Resolved, That, believing the spirit and tendencies of radicalism are unfavorable to these aims, we take our stand with the true Union Conservatives of Tennessee, and invite our race throughout the State to do the same.

Resolved, That our right to vote involves the right to hold office, and that its denial is unjust, and that our interests and rights as free men require also that we should have the right to sit upon juries.

There was also a Radical convention of freedmen, which indorsed the platform of the Republicans of the State, and declared itself in favor of Brownlow for the next Governor of Tennes

see.

At the opening of the political campaign, the following correspondence passed between a citizen of the State and Governor Brownlow:

GREENVILLE, May 9, 1867. Governor Wm. G. Brownlow: DEAR SIR: After my respects to you, and knowing you to be frank upon all subjects of a public character, I now, in the spirit of true kindness and due respect, ask you if Conservative men can or will be permitted to canvass the various districts of Tennessee in an orderly manner, without being overawed or intimidated by the State troops.

Very respectfully,
JOHN HOLTSINGER.

In reply to your favor of the 9th inst., I respectfully refer you to my circular of the 8th inst., and to the platform of the Republican Union party, adopted the 22d of February. You will there learn that the largest liberty in debate, with the right to discuss public men and measures, is claimed for speakers of all parties. And however severe the speakers may be, no State Guards will be allowed to interrupt them, or will be upheld in doing so. The State Guards will protect colored men in their right to vote, and clerks and judges of elections in carrying out the provisions of the franchise law. And if bad men, from disloyal

motives, shall venture to deliver incendiary speeches, and advise the overthrow of the State government by mob violence, I should think the State Guards and loyal citizens greatly at fault to tolerate such men.

As the Executive of the State, I have no authority to prevent "Conservative men" from canvassing the State, and, if I had, I have no such disposition. I have the honor to be, etc.,

W. G. BROWNLOW, Governor.

There was a difference of opinion as to the proper interpretation of the 10th section of the franchise law quoted above, and the chairman of the Conservative State Central Committee issued the following address to the County

Courts of the State:

Do not fail to appoint judges in all the precincts at your July term. This is required to be done by the County Courts of each county; at the session next preceding the election day, which is the 1st day of August next. Code, Section 821. The law is not law is amended in the last franchise act, Section 10, changed on that subject. If this be neglected, as the

page 31, the power devolves on the commissioner of registration. Some have erroneously supposed that the power has been taken from the County Court by that act. It will be seen the commissioner is authorized to appoint, in cases when the sheriff by the existing law could do so, and that was only in case the County Court failed to attend to that duty, or the persons they appointed failed to act. See Code, Section 842. Whatever may have been intended, the act of the 25th of February, 1867, construed with said sections of the Code, admits of no other construction-it is certainly plain-too plain for controversy.

By order of the Central Committee:

JOHN C. GAUT, Chairman.

66

This called forth a proclamation from Governor Brownlow, the preamble of which characterized the address as an "incendiary document," issued by the "partisan chairman of a political committee," a seditious circular " recommending the nullification of the franchise law; and declared that a "false and rebellious construction has been given to the law, by the audacious authors of the aforesaid treasonable circular, evidently for wicked and revolutionary purposes." The body of the proclamation was in these words:

Now, therefore, I, William G. Brownlow, Governor of the State of Tennessee, by virtue of authority conferred upon me, and in discharge of the duties imposed upon me by law, do hereby give notice that the franchise law was clearly and unquestionably framed so as to take the appointment of judges and clerks of election from the County Courts and sheriff's, giving the same to the commissioners of registration; therefore, the election returns made by said commissioners will alone be recognized at the State Department. I warn all County Courts in the State not to act upon the advice of this committee of seditionists, as they will lay themselves liable to be punished; and I warn all judges and clerks of elections, whom they may appoint, not to attempt to serve, as they would come in conflict with the lawfully constituted judges and clerks of elections. And if it be the purpose to provoke sedition and violence in a wicked attempt to overthrow the State government, upon their head shall rest the consequences.

General Joseph A. Cooper, in command of the State Guards, is hereby instructed so to dispose of the troops in the rebellious localities, as to enable him to enforce the franchise law in its letter and spirit, without regard to the threats of the seditionists. Order must be maintained, and the law executed, if