SECTION VII. FIGURE OF SPEECH. The using of a word in a sense which is not proper to it-Two objects presented, the principal and the accessory-Aggrandizes its object-Prevents the familiarity of proper names-Enriches and renders language more copious. In the section immediately foregoing, a figure of speech is defined, "The using of a word in a sense different from what is proper to it ;" and the new or uncommon sense of the word is termed the figurative sense. The figurative sense must have a relation to that which is proper; and the more intimate the relation is, the figure is the more happy. How ornamental this figure is to language, will not be readily imagined by any one who has not given peculiar attention; and therefore I shall endeavor to unfold its capital beauties and advantages. In the first place, a word used figuratively or in a new sense, suggests at the same time the sense it commonly bears: and thus it has the effect to present two objects; one signified by the figurative sense, which may be termed the principal object; and one signified by the proper sense which may be termed accessory: the principal makes a part of the thought; the accessory is merely ornamental. In this respect, a figure of speech is precisely similar to concordant sounds in music, which without contributing to the melody, makes it harmonious. I explain myself by examples. Youth, by a figure of speech, is termed the morning of life. This expression signifies youth, the principal object, which enters into the thought: it suggests, at the same time, the proper sense of morning; and this accessory object, being in itself beautiful, and connected by resemblance to the principal object, is not a little ornamental. Imperious ocean is an example of a different kind, where an attribute is expressed figuratively together with stormy, the figurative meaning of the epithet imperious, there is suggested its proper meaning, viz. the stern authority of a despotic prince; and these two are strongly connected by resemblance. Upon this figurative power of words, Vida des cants with elegance: Nonne vides, verbis ut veris sæpe relictis Accersant simulata, aliundeque nomina porro Permutantque, juvantque vicissim; et mutua sesa Tum specie captiondent spectare legentes: See how the poet banishes with grace He clothes his matter in the borrowed dress: Alarm the deeps, and wage the stormy war; To the fierce shock th' embattled tempests pour, Waves charge on waves, th' encountering billows roar. By turns the objects shift their proper signs; From shape to shape alternately they run, To borrow others' charms, and lend their own; Pleased with the borrowed charms, the readers find Rise from a single object to the mind. In the next place, this figure possesses a signal power of aggran dizing an object, by the following means. Words which have no original beauty but what arises from their sound, acquire an adventitious beauty from their meaning: a word signifying any thing that is agreeable, becomes by that means agreeable; for the agreeableness of the object is communicated to its name.* This acquired beauty by the force of custom, adheres to the word even when used figuratively; and the beauty received from the thing it properly signifies, is communicated to the thing which it is made to signify figuratively. Consider the foregoing expression Imperious ocean, how much more elevated it is than Stormy ocean. Thirdly, this figure has a happy effect by preventing the familiarity of proper names. The familiarity of a proper name, is communicated to the thing it signifies by means of their intimate connection; and the thing is thereby brought down in our feeling. This bad effect is prevented by using a figurative word instead of one that is proper; as, for example, when we express the sky by terming it the blue vault of heaven; for though no work of art can compare with the sky in grandeur, the expression however is relished, because it prevents the object from being brought down by the familiarity of its proper name. With respect to the degrading familiarity of proper names, Vida has the following passage: *See Chap. 2. Part 1. Sect. 5. + I have often regretted, that a factious spirit of opposition to the reigning family makes it necessary in public worship to distinguish the king by his proper name. One will scarce imagine who has not made the trial, how much better it sounds to pray for our sovereign lord the king, without any addition. Hinc si dura mihi passus dicendus Ulysses, Poet. lib. II. 1. 46. Thus great Ulysses' toils were I to choose, Should shine my hero, but conceal his name; As one, who lost at sea, had nations seen, And marked their towns, their manners, and their men, Since Troy was levelled to the dust by Greece.— Lastly, by this figure language is enriched, and rendered more opious; in which respect, were there no other, a figure of speech is happy invention. This property is finely touched by Vida: Quinetiam agricolas ea fandi nota voluptas Ev'en the rough hinds delight in such a strain, The smiling fields rejoice, and hail the pregnant year. For, things, that would not suit our scanty tongue, The beauties I have mentioned belong to every figure of speech. Several other beauties peculiar to one or other sort, I shall have occasion to remark afterward. Not only subjects, but qualities, actions, effects, may be expressed figuratively. Thus, as to subjects, the gates of breath for the lips, the watery kingdom for the ocean. As to qualities, fierce for stormy, in the expression Fierce winter: Altus for profundus; Altus puteus, Altum mare; Breathing for perspiring; Breathing plants. Again, as to actions, the sea rages, Time will melt her frozen thoughts, Time kills grief. An effect is put for the cause, as lux for the sun; and a cause for the effect, as boum labores for corn. The relation of resemblance is one plentiful source of figures of speech; and nothing is more common than to apply to one object the name of another that resembles it in any respect: height, size, and worldly greatness, resemble not each other; but the emotions they produce resemble each other, and prompted by this resemblance, we naturally express worldly greatness by height or size: one feels a certain uneasiness in seeing a great depth; and hence depth is made to express any thing disagreeable by excess, as depth of grief, depth of despair: again, height of place, and time long past, produce similar feelings; and hence the expression, Ut altius repetam: distance in past time producing a strong feeling, is put for any strong feeling. Nihil mihɩ antiquius nostra amicitia: shortness with relation to space, for shortness with relation to time, Brevis esse laboro, obscurus fio: suffering a punishment resembles paying a debt; hence pendere panas. the same manner light may be put for glory, sunshine for prosperity, and weight for importance. In Many words, originally figurative, having by long and constant use, lost their figurative power, are degraded to the inferior rank of proper terms. Thus the words that express the operations of the mind, have in all languages been originally figurative: the reason holds in all, that when these operations came first under consideration, there was no other way of describing them than by what they resembled: it was not practicable to give them proper names, as may be done to objects that can be ascertained by sight and touch. A soft nature, jarring tempers, weight of wo, pompous phrase, beget compassion, assuage grief, break a vow, bend the eye downward, shower down curses, drown'd in tears, wrapt in joy, warm'd with eloquence, loaded with spoils, and a thousand other expressions of the like nature, have lost their figurative sense. Some terms there are, that cannot be said to be either altogether figurative or altogether proper originally figurative, they are tending to simplicity, without having lost altogether their figurative power. Virgil's Regina saucia cura, is perhaps one of these expressions: with ordinary readers, saucia will be considered as expressing simply the effect of grief; but one of a lively imagination will exalt the phrase into a figure. For epitomising this subject, and at the same time for giving a clear view of it, I cannot think of a better method, than to present to the reader a list of the several relations upon which figures of speech are commonly founded. This list I divide into two tables · one of subjects expressed figuratively, and one of attributes. FIRST TABLE. Subjects expressed figuratively. 1. A word proper to one subject employed figuratively to express a resembling subject. There is no figure of speech so frequent, as what is derived from the relation of resemblance. Youth, for example, is signified figuratively by the morning of life. The life of a man resembles a natural day in several particulars: the morning is the beginning of day, youth the beginning of life; the morning is cheerful, so is youth, &c. By another resemblance, a bold warrior is termed the thunderbolt of war; a multitude of troubles, a sea of troubles. This figure, above all others, affords pleasure to the mind by varicty of beauties. Besides the beauties above mentioned, common to all sorts, it possesses in particular the beauty of a metaphor or of a simile: a figure of speech built upon resemblance, suggests always a comparison between the principal subject and the accessory; whereby every good effect of a metaphor or simile, may in a short and lively manner, be produced by this figure of speech. 2. A word proper to the effect employed figuratively to express the cause. Lux for the sun. Shadow for cloud. A helmet is signified by the expression glittering terror. A tree by shadow or umbrage Hence the expression: There is a peculiar force and beauty in this figure: the word which signifies figuratively the principal subject, denotes it to be a cause by suggesting the effect. 3. A word proper to the cause, employed figuratively to express the effect. Boumque labores, for corn. Sorrow or grief, for tears. Again, Ulysses veil'd his pensive head; Blindness for darkness: Cæcis erramus in undis.‡ Eneid, III. 200. There is a peculiar energy in this figure, similar to that in the former the figurative name denotes the subject to be an effect, by suggesting its cause. 4. Two things being intimately connected, the proper name of the one employed figuratively to signify the other. Day for light. Night for darkness; and hence, A sudden night Winter for a storm at sea: Interea magno misceri murmure pontum, Eneid, I. 128. This last figure would be too bold for a British writer, as a storm at sea is not inseparably connected with winter in this climate. 5. A word proper to an attribute, employed figuratively to denote the subject. Youth and beauty for those who are young and beautiful : Youth and beauty shall be laid in dust. Majesty for the King: What art thou, that usurp'st this time of night, Together with that fair and warlike form, In which the Majesty of buried Denmark Did sometime march? -Or have ye chosen this place After the toils of battle, to repose Your weary'd virtue. *Nor hath Pelion shadows. Hamiet, Act I. Sc. 1. Paradise ost. I will follow thee with a wound, not with feet. |