that they need not necessarily have been carried by land-plants, but that they might have been torn from the sea-floor by marine algæ, some of which may have have had a more buoyant character than those of modern seas. He cited the case of a sandy beach in the neighbourhood of Youghal, which is strewn with limestone fragments, which had been conveyed by sea-weeds thrown up after storms from submarine banks. It was suggested that the occurrence of natural fissures in the rocks and cracks produced by concussions from large masses, hurled about by the waves, might sufficiently explain how the fragments could be freed from the main mass of the reefs under the stress of the waves.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

A SPIDER'S CONTRIVANCE.-When residing in Lugano, in Switzerland, some time ago, I was much interested in observing the method by which a garden spider had adopted to keep its web extended under difficulties. I had four small pollard acacia trees about seven or eight feet high, planted in tubs, nine feet apart, in front of my house. A garden spider (Epeira diadema) had spun its web between two of the trees, and had made fast its threads, or stays, to various top and side branches; but as there happened to be no branches to which it could fix its threads below the web, it must have thought of some other means, and devised a mechanical contrivance for the completion of its web by placing a weight on the lower side of the web to serve as a stay. The spider must therefore have descended from its half-finished web to the gravel walk by one of its threads, and selected a small stone, nearly inch cube, to which it attached the thread by which the spider had descended; then by running up this thread to the web, it hoisted up the stone to an elevation which it considered a safe position, and out of the way of any small animal that might pass underneath the web. The stone was hanging about two feet off the ground, and three feet below the spider's web. It was oscillating with the wind. I placed my hand very gently under the stone and raised it up an inch or two, upon which the web immediately began to collapse, but, on lowering my hand again, the web became extended as before.-G. E. G.

KANGAROOS ON LEITH HILL.-Some fourteen years ago some kangaroos, kept in confinement by Mr. W. J. Evelyn, Wotton House, escaped and made their home on the common on Leith Hill and surrounding district, where they have lived and bred ever since. There is no abundance of them, however, and great regret was felt some three years ago when one was shot. Another has just been killed by a large dog, and as it is felt that these interesting and timid creatures should be propagated rather than destroyed, it is to be hoped that persons passing over the hill will be careful, when accompanied by large dogs, to see that they do not attack or destroy the only specimens of the kind running wild in this country. The above paragraph from the "West Sussex Gazette" of Feb. 2nd last is interesting.William Jeffery, Ratham, Chichester.

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your readers, to know that Captain Knox in his Ornithological Rambles," 3rd edition, published in 1885, has figured a heron flying off with a waterrat. Also I have been told by a Chichester birdstuffer that he, in one season, took three water-rats from the stomachs of herons sent to be preserved. In corroboration of the remark as to a heron capturing a 2 lb. trout, which seems almost incredible, a friend of mine told me a few days ago, of a heron, on being chased by a rook, dropping a trout which was ascertained to weigh 2 lb.-William Jeffery.

SHOOTING IMMIGRANT BIRDS.--I truly sympathise with your correspondent in last SCIENCEGOSSIP, who wishes "to raise a howl of execration against the shooting of our immigrant birds." The most practical remedy I can suggest to prevent this bird slaughter, is to take every possible opportunity of enforcing the provisions of the Wild Birds Protection Act of 1880, by which all wild birds are protected, more or less, between 1st March and Ist August. Every offence against this Act, if supported by satisfactory evidence will, I am sure, be readily taken up by the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, if reported to the secretary, and the culprit brought to justice, and I can say from actual experience, that a single conviction in any district will have a most salutary effect. At this time of year it may be useful to shortly state, that it is an offence against the Act for any person in the United Kingdom, between the 1st March and 1st August, (1) To shoot, or attempt to shoot, or use any boat for the purpose of shooting, or causing to be shot, any wild bird. (2) To use any lime, trap, snare, net, or other instrument for the purpose of taking any wild bird. (3) To expose for sale, or to offer for sale, or to have in his possession after the fifteenth day of March, any wild bird recently killed or taken. (4) Any person who shall be found offending against the Act, and refusing to give name and place of abode, shall also be subject to a further penalty as provided by the Act. May I also take this opportunity of bringing to the notice of the readers of SCIENCE-GOSSIP, the Selborne Society, which has for its objects the preservation of our native fauna and flora, and is already doing some excellent work. The annual subscription is only 2s. 6d., which also entitles members to copies of the Society's magazine, and all information can be obtained from J. L. Otter, Esq., 3 Dr. Johnson's Buildings, Temple.-John R. B. Masefield, Rosehill, Cheadle, Staffordshire.

BOMBYX RUBI.-In reply to Mr. Finch and others, to the rearing of the above. I have bred it for a good number of years, and it has always proved very successful; generally breeding five or six out of every dozen of larvæ. Mr. Finch should get a good sized box, say 18 in. square and 12 in. deep, and put in. of good mould into it, and place over it two square sods of grass with a few roots of narrow leaved plantain in it, then place the larvæ into the box, covered with wire gauze, and put it outside, so that they will get full exposed to the winter. I have never failed in the above. If kept indoors during the winter they will all die.-Peter Kirk.

DUCKLINGS.-Last summer I had two broods of ducklings of eleven each. When two days old, the hens under whom they were hatched were placed in coops on my front lawn. The young ducks had their liberty to wander where they pleased, and when about nine days old, found their way down some steps into a pond close by. After swimming about for some time they returned, and attempted unsuccessfully to

mount the steps. Eventually they congregated together, held a consultation, and after a chorus of quacks started round a road to the back premises. I went through the house, and saw them come in a body under the gate into the yard. After looking around for a minute or two, they approached me in a body, held up their heads, and with a loud and united quack, led off to the door separating the yard from the garden. I followed them, and opened it, upon which they immediately took the right path round the house to the front lawn where the coops were placed.

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FEEDING FROGS AND NEWTS. (SCIENCEGossip, p. 43).-I think A. F. Jenkins's frogs cannot be tree-frogs if they will eat worms, as he reports. I have kept tree-frogs, and they would never eat anything but insects and millipedes, the latter they were very fond of. The very name treefrog" suggests an arboreal residence, as of course they delight in, and where no worms could be obtained. Perhaps they eat worms for want of something better? I agree with your correspondent that it is cruelty to keep newts constantly in water; if required as ornaments in an aquarium they should always have a large piece of cork on which to scramble when they wish. With regard to salamanders, the best food for them is undoubtedly slugs, these creatures the salamander seems to be just able to overtake in their flight; other and more active prey, such as worms, etc., invariably make their escape whilst their enemy is making up his mind which to take.-W. Finch, jun., Nottingham.

FLIES AND ANTS.-"Amator Naturæ " has evidently witnessed the "Marriage Flight" of ants, which, according to White, of Selborne, takes place on hot sunny days of August and September. The larger winged ants are the females, those of less size the males. I have extracted the following from a paper by F. Buchanan White, M.D., F.L.S.: "When the winged individuals (male and female) leave the pupa state they remain in the nest for a few days, attended by the workers, but on some fine morning they come out, climb about the dome, or on some neighbouring plant and pair there, some however going off to a greater distance. At this time the workers are in a great state of excitement, and run hither and thither, looking for the fertilised females, which are then carried into the nest. The mates fly away, and, being unable to feed themselves, die in a few days, or are slain by birds or spiders, or by other ants. After a female has been fertilised she takes steps to get rid of her wings, which are now of no further use. This she accomplishes by moving them backwards and forwards and shaking them violently till they drop off. In getting rid of their wings they are often assisted by the workers. Thereafter the rest of the life of the female is spent in laying eggs from time to time, and she takes little or no part in the work of the nest.”Thomas Winder, C.E., Sheffield.

THE MOUNTAIN FINCH.-It is probably not very usual for this bird to roost in company with the house sparrow. During the last week in February, a large flock of these finches appeared at Hollybank, near Emsworth, of which several were taken in a sparrow net, among the evergreens. Some still (March 5) continue to stay in the neighbourhood.F. H. Arnold.

MARINE COPEPOD.-The illustration representing a marine copepod with the young was found in the Menai Straits about the beginning of February. It

shows in a striking manner the difference between the young nauplii and the mature crustacean. I am unacquainted with the name, and should be glad if any reader of SCIENCE-GOSSIP could identify it.Bernard Thomas.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

TO CORRESPONDENTS AND EXCHANGERS.-As we now publish SCIENCE-GOSSIP earlier than formerly, we cannot undertake to insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month.

TO ANONYMOUS QUERISTS.-We must adhere to our rule of not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names.

TO DEALERS AND OTHERS.-We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the "exchanges" offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of "exchanges" which cannot be tolerated.

WE request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or initials) and full address at the end.

MISS C.-The shell you sent us to be named is Cyprea ocellata. If you will send us your address (which has been mislaid) we shall be pleased to return the shell to you.

G. F., jun.-Your exchange was not inserted through inadvertence.

G. E. EAST, jun.-Have you tried preserving the delicate shells by placing them in a boiling mixture of milk and gelatine? It restores the organic matter and renders brittle shells hard; but much care must be taken.

J. BOWMAN.-We shall be very pleased to have your ornithological articles. Send us one to look at.

EXCHANGES.

WANTED, a set of the "Phytologist," in return for which will be given a collection of British mosses, in all about 350 species, named and localised, each species in separate packet; together with copy of Hobkirk's Synopsis.-J. C., 9 Wythenshaw Road, Sale.

FOR exchange, Witkowski's movable anatomical plates, seven in number, cost 75. 6d. each, for Quain's "Anatomy," 8th or 9th edition, in good condition.-John L. Speirs, i Longley Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

WILL exchange "Cornhill Magazine" for 1886 and 1887, unbound, good condition, for good micro slides. Send list.Miss P.-Fern Cottage, Witheridge, North Devon.

EXCHANGE.-Planorbis glaber, Cochlicope tridens, Pisidium amnicum, &c. Desiderata, Bulimus montanus, Helix fusca, Helix obvoluta, Helix pygmæa.-John Clegg, 5 Derby Street, Millwood, Todmorden, Yorkshire.

WANTED, Newman's "Moths," entomological apparatus, or ova, larvæ, or pupa of Lepidoptera, in exchange for a number of educational books, "Tit-Bits," &c.-L., 4 Gill Street, Nottingham.

WANTED, in exchange for rare and curious lizard, about six inches in length, deep brown shining warty skin, found in eastern Perthshire, a live specimen of sea anemone, any

of the trochus or turritella, or Velvet Fiddler crab.-Wm. Smith, Belmont Street, Newtyle, Forfarshire.

ABOUT fifty pathological slides in rack box, with class-room notes to most of them. What offers? Other micro-slides not wanted.-W. Mathie, 127 Buchanan Street, Glasgow.

WHAT offers for "Chambers's Encyclopædia," to vols.; Cassell's "Popular Educator," 3 vols.; Cassell's "FrancoPrussian War," 2 vols.; Ward & Lock's "Instruction for All," 3 vols., all bound half-calf, and equal to new, never having been used?-W. Mathie, 127 Buchanan Street, Glasgow.

FOR exchange.-Marshall's "Rural Economy of Southern Counties," 2 vols. (1799); "Burns's Correspondence" (1816); Forrest's "Rock Sculptures on Rombald's Moor" (lithographs, pamphlet); Harting's "Rambles in Search of Land Shells," and engravings of varieties of British Unios. Wanted. -Continental Unionidæ, or varieties of Helices, or varieties or monstrosities of Dreissena polymorpha.-Geo. Roberts, Lofthouse, Wakefield.

WANTED, a pond-collecting stick with bottle, net, knife, &c. Will give good exchange in micro-slides.-Geo. Ward, Syston, Leicester.

MOST brilliant and magnificent exotic butterflies-Morpho anaxibia and Morpho leonte-what offers?-Joseph Anderson, jun., Alre Villa, Chichester.

ANTIQUE microscope, "by Heath and Wing, near ye Exeter Exchange in ye Strand," supposed one of the first made, with

three objectives and other accessories, in mahogany case, all in good preservation. Would like to exchange for a modern serviceable microscope.-Ed. Lee, Havelock Cottage, Beach Road, Jersey.

GOOD exchange given for well-blown (side-blown) eggs. For further particulars apply to-W. M. Roberts, F.Sc.S., Abergynolwyn, R. S. O., Merionethshire, N.W.

WANTED, "Entomologist," Nos. 102-190, 193, 194, 196, 197, "Entomologist's Magazine," Nos. 49-55, inclusive.F. W. Frohawk, Balham, S.W.

220-223;

To Egg Collectors.-I have a few coloured plates of egg of great auk.-F. W. Frohawk, Balham, S.W.

WANTED, British and foreign land and marine shells; good foreign stamps offered in exchange.-Thos. W. Reader, 171 Hemingford Road, London, N.

WANTED, a number of glass-capped boxes suitable for mounting delicate and small shells, &c.-Thos. W. Reader, 171 Hemingford Road, London, N.

SCIENCE-GOSSIP for 1886 in publisher's covers; ditto 1887 in half-calf, in perfect condition. What offers in photographic apparatus?-Geo. Fell, jun., Aylesbury.

OFFERED.-A good one-sixth objective, 110° aperture, shows beaded striæ on Surirella gemma. Wanted. Kützing's "Species Algarum," and other works on algæ.-T. H. Buffham, Comely Bank Road, Walthamstow.

UNMOUNTED objects in exchange for other unmounted or mounted objects.-Geo. T. Read, 87 Lordship Road, Stoke Newington, N.

WANTED, IS. edition of J. G. Wood's "British Beetles." Good exchange in micro-slides or unmounted objects.-Geo. T. Read, 87 Lordship Road, Stoke Newington, N.

WANTED, a good and strong hand magnifying glass, also a flat micro aquarium; will give well-mounted slides in exchange. -A. E. Colinan, 50 Elgin Crescent, Notting Hill, W.

SPONGE spicules (mounted) from carboniferous limestone, in exchange for spicules or other fossils from other formations.E. Carrick, Sharon Street, Dalry, Ayrshire, N. B.

OFFERED, "Universal Instructor," complete in 43 parts. Wanted, Horace B. Woodward's "Geology of England and Wales," 2nd edition.-J. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning. QUANTITY of books (miscellaneous) in exchange for natural history books or specimens, or in part exchange for good microscope. Lists sent.-D. Lea, Dragon House, Farnworth, Widnes.

Helix cartusiana wanted in exchange for good British land and freshwater shells. John R. B. Masefield, Rosehill, Cheadle, Staffordshire.

WHAT offers for a duplicate volume of SCIENCE-GOSSIP for 1870, bound in the red paper (publisher's) binding?-E. H. Wagstaff, 3 Waterworks Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

OFFERED, really good telescope (cost 10s. 6d.), in exchange for good books. Joe Bates, 20 Lord Street, Burnley. WANTED, "Mounting and Preparing Objects" (Davies); "Pond Life" (Slack): "Hogg on the Microscope;" Huxley's "Biology." Will exchange scientific and educational works and fossils.-Jno. Eyre, 4 Kender Street, New Cross, S.E.

GENUINE worked flints from Thames valley gravels; skull, dress, &c., of New Guinea native; skull of fallow deer; vols. of SCIENCE-GOSSIP, "Entomologist," and other good books, in exchange for micro-section cuttings, mounting apparatus, and dissecting instruments.-H. E. Quilter, 4 Cedar Road, Leicester. VOL. I. of "Comparative Embryology," by F. M. Balfour, wanted.-H. E. Quilter, 4 Cedar Road, Leicester.

ADVERTISER, going to Australia, wishes to dispose of his collection of micro-slides. What offers ?-Arthur Downes, 5 Royal Park Road, Clifton, Bristol.

Six dozen micro objects, well mounted on ground-edge slides, some professionally. Entomological books or apparatus required, or offers.-A. Draper, 179 Cemetery Road, Sheffield. I WILL give two polished sections of unnamed and unlocalised Devonian fossil corals, for one specimen of any unpolished named and localised corals, except Fenestella retiformis, carb. and Lithostrotion junceum, carb.-Ernest O. Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

HAWKINS, "Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri," folio, 30 plates, 1840. What offers in books?-P. Payne, Free Library, Hinckley. H. cantiana and H. virgata in exchange for species of Vertigo and Pupa.-Chas. A. Whatmore, Ranelagh Road, Wolverhampton.

FOR exchange, a collection of about 1500 to 2000 fossils; also SCIENCE-GOSSIP (unbound), 1882-1885, inclusive.-J. A. Floyd, 15 Hospital Road, Bury St. Edmunds.

OFFERED, SCIENCE-GOSSIP from 1880 to 1887 (March parts for 1880 and 1885, and one coloured plate for 1884 wanting). Wanted, M'Coy's" Prodromus of the Paleontology of Victoria,” decades I. VII.-J. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning.

OFFERED, Brachiopods and other carboniferous fossils. Wanted, fossils from other formations.-J. A. Hargreaves, Charlestown, Shipley, Yorkshire.

WANTED, all or any of Darwin's works; other books in exchange. List sent on application.-Miss C. Leigh, Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth.

SPECIMENS of minerals (40) in exchange for Darwin's "Descent of Man," and the "Origin of Species." Also minerals and fossils (chalk and coal measures) in exchange for

mounted micro objects.-A. Richardson, 39 Edithna Street, Stockwell, London, S. W.

DUPLICATES.-U. pictorum, D. polymorpha, B. leachii, P. corneus, P. vortex, P. spirorbis, L. stagnalis, L. peregra, var. ovata, H. pisana. Wanted, P. roscum, U. tumidus, P. carinatus, V. pellucida, Z. fulvus, H. lapicida, H. obvoluta. -Henry C. Langdon, 4 Castle Down, Hastings, Sussex.

P. glaber for any other land and freshwater shells.-T. Ingham, 3 Railway Street, Darwen Terrace, Blackpool.

BRITISH land, freshwater, and marine shells, in exchange for any book or pamphlet by John Ruskin.-S. C. Cockerell, 5 Priory Road, Bedford Park, Chiswick, W.

WANTED, Helix hortensis and H. nemoralis from all parts of the British Isles.-Rev. J. W. Horsley, The Avenue, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

WANTED, exotic Lepidoptera and other insects; brilliant ones preferred. Microscopic objects offered in exchange.J. W. Neville, Wellington Road, Handsworth, Birmingham. DRAGON-FLIES wanted from all parts of the British Isles, for purpose of working up geographical distribution; Lepidoptera offered in return.-W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham. DRAGON-FLIES wanted. Offered, A. adippe, G. rhamni, I. batis, L. argiolus, L. irretata, A. nebulosa, and many others.-W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham.

WANTED, micro-slides (especially botanical) in exchange for back numbers of "Popular Science Monthly," "Science Review," SCIENCE-GOSSIP, &c.; also D or C eye-piece wanted in exchange for A-difference arranged.-P., 80 Leathwaite Road, Clapham Common, London, S.W.

BOTANIST (young) desires a fellow one to accompany him on a collecting tour in beginning of July.-H. J., 6, Ramsden Road, Balham, London, S. W.

WANTED, numbers of SCIENCE-GOSSIP for 1883, except those of October and December. State desiderata.-A. G. H., 10 St. John's Hill, S.W.

WHAT offers in old volumes of SCIENCE-GOSSIP, micro-slides of pond life or rock sections, for volumes of "Great Thoughts," "Cassell's Saturday Journal," a quantity of old "Graphics," and other magazines?-A. G. H., 10 St. John's Hill, S.W. "Ento

FOR exchange.-SCIENCE-GOSSIP, 1875-8, blue cloth, and thirty odd numbers; "British Butterflies," "Moths," mology" (Kirby Spence), calf, gilt letters and edges, new; "Life of an Insect," 2 vols.; "Alphabet of Insects" (J. Rennie); "Insects" vol. of "Jardine's Naturalist's Library," coloured plates.-R. J. Warner, 80 Netherwood Road, Hammersmith.

"ILLUSTRATIONS of the Linnæan Orders of Insects" (W. Wood), 1821, 2 vols., 35 coloured plates, valued by "Bazaar" at 215. Exchange for books on chess or singing, or anything useful.-R. J. Warner, 80 Netherwood Road, Hammersmith. OFFERED, two years of "Knowledge," 1885-6, unbound: Muspratt's "Chemistry," unbound (incomplete). Wanted, works on dyeing.-Sellers, Deepdale, Davenport Park, Stockport.

FOR exchange, a number of Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, and Oligocene fossils; also M'Alpine's "Zoological Atlas of Vertebrates" (249 figures), and "Zoological Atlas of Invertebrates" (231 figures). Wanted, Wood's or Duncan's "Natural History" also fossils from formations other than the above, land and freshwater shells or micro-slides.-Theo. T. Groom, St. John's College, Cambridge.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

"Illustrated Manual of British Birds," Part I., by Howard Saunders.-"Trans. Leeds Geol. Association."-"Practical Geography for Schools," by Alfred Hughes (Oxford: Clarendon Press). The Story of Creation," by Ed. Clodd (London: Longmans).-Cassell's "Technical Educator," Part II.-" The Microscope."-"Journal of Conchology."-"Book Chat.""Scribner's Monthly."-"The Amateur Photographer."-"The Garner."-"The Naturalist."-"The Botanical Gazette.""The West American Scientist.""-"The Belgravia.". Gentleman's Magazine."-" American Monthly Microscopical Journal."-"The Essex Naturalist."-" The Midland Naturalist."-"Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes."-"The American Naturalist."-" Journal of Microscopy and Nat. Science.""Scientific News."-"Wesley Naturalist."-"Naturalists' Monthly."-" La Science Illustrée," &c., &c.

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COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVED UP TO THE 14TH ULT. FROM: F. G. A. B.-W. H. H.-R. F.-A. G. H.-M. G. S. T.-S. H. —A. P.—J. H. H.-R.-H. F. R.—J. L. S.-J. E. N. B.F. C.-A. T.-W.-R. G.-H. E. V.-G. T. P.-C. S. L.G. H. W.-A. C. C.-A. H. S.-G. P. S.-S.-S. S. A.G. L. A.-H. W.-G. J.-J. B.-G. R.—P.-W. H. L.G. W.-J. A., jun.-R. H. N. B.-J. C.-J. L.-W. S.W. E. C-E. L.-W. M.-A. G. T. G. T., jun.-J. S. -E. C.-A. E. C.-E. S.-I. H. B.-G. W. D.-G. T. R.D. L.-I. W. R.-J. W. F.-J. R. B. M.-E. H. W.W. M. R.-J. R.-E. O. M.-P. F. G.-A. D.-H. G. J. W. N.-W. H. B.-H. C. L.-R. C. H.-P. P.-C. A. W. -J. A. F.-J. W. H.-S. C. C.-J. A. H.-A. R.C. L.-A. D.-H. E. Q.-P. K.-H. T.-I. I. G.-J. C. E.W. G.-I. S.-A. B.-S.-T. D. A. C.-M. E. S.-R. J. W. -&c.

In this article Mr. Bulman objects to 'certain modern botanical theories" by which the colours of flowers are held to be developed through insect selection. His objection is based on the fact that, at various times of the year, leaves also develop brilliant colours. He remarks, very justly, that "we are just as much bound to account for the colours of these as of the varied hues of the blossoms," and he asks whether they can "be shown to be any distinct benefit to the plant in the struggle for existence."

He then goes on to attack a further development of the evolution of colour theory, viz., that special colours are evolved by, and together with, special insects; red and blue by bees and Lepidoptera, for instance. His grounds are (1) that (in his experience) there are certain red and blue flowers not visited by bees, and (2) that many flowers of various other colours are visited by these insects. Lastly, he cites two instances (the hawthorn and some Umbellifera) which he holds to be in contradiction to the "special colour" theory.

Mr. Bulman's objection to the general theory of colour development in flowers, is, I think, fully met by a quotation on the similarity of the coloured No. 282.-JUNE 1888.

AND FLOWERS.

pigments found in leaves to those of flowers which Grant Allen (" Colours of Flowers," p. 20) makes from Dr. Sorby, the great investigator of the chemical nature of the coloured pigments found in plants. It is as follows:

"The coloured substances in the petals are, in many cases, exactly the same as those in the foliage from which chlorophyll has disappeared; so that the petals are often exactly like leaves which have turned yellow and red in autumn, or the very yellow or red leaves of early spring." "The colour of many crimson, pink, and red flowers is due to the development of substances belonging to the erythrophyll group, and not unfrequently to exactly the same kind as that so often found in leaves. The facts seem to indicate, that these various substances may be due to an alteration of the normal constituents of leaves. So far as I have been able to ascertain, their development seems as if related to extra oxidisation, modified by light and other varying conditions not yet understood."

Clearly then, the development of the coloured pigments in both leaves and flowers is due to the same primary chemical set of causes; but, while more or less accidental (being "modified by light and other varying conditions not yet understood,") in the case of leaves, in flowers the colours are stereotyped and perpetuated by insect selection. To Mr. Bulman's question, therefore, as to whether the colours of leaves can "be shown to be any distinct benefit to the plant in the struggle for existence," I would answer decidedly in the negative; if the colours were any distinct benefit to the plant in the struggle, natural selection would have seized upon and fostered this peculiarity, and it would have become permanent, instead of remaining a simple chemical outcome of certain processes which take place in leaves in the absence of chlorophyll, and subject to modification by "light and other varying conditions."

Mr. Bulman further asks, why bees do not visit brilliantly coloured leaves as if they were flowers. The reason appears simple enough. If they ever do visit them, they would soon find that there is nothing

G

to be got. Undoubtedly bees would not continue to visit flowers simply because they possess attractive colours. They require, as Sir John Lubbock points out, much more substantial inducements.

Secondly, with regard to Mr. Bulman's attack on the theory, that special colours are developed by special insects; red and blue by bees, for instance.

In the first place, the experiments of Sir John Lubbock which Mr. Bulman mentions, were not intended to prove that theory at all. In Sir John's notice of them in his "British Wild Flowers in relation to Insects" (p. 12), he does not even mention red or blue as the colours chosen. The experiments were of course intended to show that bees can remember, and therefore distinguish, individual colours. These experiments are recorded at length in "Ants, Bees, and Wasps" (International Scientific Series), pp. 291-302. Another set of experiments, recorded in the same volume, pp. 303307, do certainly show the preference of bees for honey placed on blue paper; and although Mr. Bulman considers it "more philosophical and conclusive" to study the habits of bees with regard to flowers themselves, I would ask why bees so greatly prefer honey on blue paper, if not because they prefer the colour blue in flowers?

At any rate, whether bees prefer blue and red to other colours or not, I suppose no one has ever asserted that they do so in an æsthetic sense. The contention of the upholders of this theory is rather that they have learned to consider blue or red as an index of high specialisation; and therefore of flowers, which, while presenting peculiar adaptations for their visits, in many cases exclude (by the length of their tubes, etc.) other insects, except of course Lepidoptera; that red and blue are in fact highly-evolved colours, consequently present in highly-evolved flowers which are fitted for the visits of highlyevolved insects.

To make this point more clear, it may be as well here to mention some important conclusions of Hermann Müller, and Grant Allen. Almost the last words of Müller's great work, “Die Befruchtung der Blumen," are :—

"On the whole we find red, violet, and blue colours appearing for the first time in flowers whose honey is quite concealed and which are visited by more or less long-tongued insects (bees, long-tongued flies, Lepidoptera), or else in flowers visited for the sake of their pollen chiefly by bees and drone-flies (Hepatica triloba, Verbascum phœniceum)."

Grant Allen shows a remarkable accordance with this view, which is all the more striking because his work is on such entirely different lines; his object being to account for the colours of flowers, while Müller's is to explain their mechanisms in relation to their insect visitors. In summing up his "Law of Progressive Colouration," he comes to six conclusions; the three bearing on this point are:

(1). The most advanced members of all families are usually red, purple, or blue.

(2). Almost all the members of the most advanced families are purple or blue.

(3). The most advanced members of the most advanced families are almost always blue, unless spotted or variegated.

"“almost,"

N.B. The qualifying words, "usually,' are accounted for by his theory of "retrogression." Now Grant Allen here designates by the word "advanced" precisely those species which have become so specialised, that their honey is inaccessible to any insects except bees, Lepidoptera, etc.

Grant Allen's theory of colour development, as expressed in his "Colours of Flowers," can hardly be accepted in its entirety. Much of it undoubtedly requires further proof, and much is unlikely on general scientific grounds; but however much or little of it we accept, his accordance with Müller on these points is worth noticing.

As to Mr. Bulman's first objection to this theory, viz. that certain blue and red flowers are seldom or never visited by bees, I do not think the facts support him.

Personally, I have not systematically observed the visits of insects to flowers; but his observations on two or three of the red and blue flowers mentioned by him as seldom or never visited by bees are not supported by those of Hermann Müller, recorded in his "Befruchtung der Blumen," of the patience and care of which I need hardly speak. These two or three (the common poppy and the periwinkles) are the only native German flowers (except the Scillas) in Mr. Bulman's list, and therefore the only ones recorded in Müller's work.

Of these, the common poppy (Papaver Rhæas) has been observed by Müller to be visited by seven species of bees, and only three species of all other kinds of insects.

Vinca minor has a similar record, viz. bees, seven ; other kinds of insects, three.

On Vinca major Müller has observed only Bombus

agrorum.

Mr. Bulman's second ground of objection to this theory is that bees often visit flowers of other colours than red or blue. This no one will deny. Indeed Hermann Müller in his "Befruchtung " comes to the conclusion, that "the study of particular species of insects confirms the conclusion based on observation of the more conspicuous flowers, that in general anthophilous insects are not confined by hereditary instinct to certain flowers, but fly about seeking their food on whatever flowers they can find it."

I think, in fact, we may safely conclude that while red and blue, appearing as they do in flowers highly developed in other respects, were evolved through the selective action of long-tongued insects such as bees and diurnal Lepidoptera, by which they are in many cases almost exclusively visited, on the other