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of Time and Space,' but do not appear to have CHAP. instituted any deep researches into this point.

VIII.

ments.

In expanding their views on the origin of the B. Eleworld, the Stoics begin with the doctrine of the four elements,2 a doctrine which, since the time of Aristotle and Plato, was the one universally accepted. They even refer this doctrine to Heraclitus, wishing, above all things, to follow his teaching on natural science.3 On a previous occasion, the order and the stages have been pointed out, according to which primary fire developed into these elements at the creation of the world. In the same order, these elements now go over one into the other. And yet, in this constant transformation of materials, in the perpetual change of form to which primary matter is subject, in this flux of all its

δὲ διάστημα τῆς τοῦ κόσμου κινή. rews. Conf. Ibid. 89, a, B; Simpl. Phys. 165, a. More full is Stob. Εcl. i. 260 : ὁ δὲ Χρύσιππος χρόνον εἶναι κινήσεως διάστημα καθ' 8 ποτε λέγεται μέτρον τάχους τε καὶ βραδύτητος, ἢ τὸ παρακολουθοῦν διάστημα τῇ τοῦ κόσμου κι hoe. The passages quoted by Stob. Ibid. 250, 254, 256, 258, and Diog. 141, from Zeno, Chrysippus, Apollodorus, and Posidonius, are in agreement with

this.

1 Sext. Math. x. 142; Plut. Com. Not. 41; Stob. i. 260.

2 For the conception of σTOLXelov, which is also that of Aristotle (Metaph. i. 3), and its difference from that of apxn, see Diog. 134; 136. The difference, however, is not always observed.

Chrysippus (in Stob. Ecl. i. 312)
distinguishes three meanings of
σTOIXETOV. In one sense, it is fire;
in another, the four elements; in
the third, any material out of
which something is made.

3 Lassalle, Heraclitus, ii. 84.

• See p. 153. As is there stated, primary fire first goes over into water di' àépos (i.e. after first going over into air), and water goes over into the three other elements. In this process there is, however, a difficulty. Fire is said to derive its origin from water, and yet a portion of primary fire must have existed from the beginning, as the soul of the world. Nor is it correct to say, that actual fire is never obtained from water in the formation of the upper elements.

CHAP.
VIII.

parts, the unity of the whole still remains untouched. The distinctive characteristic of fire is heat; that of air is cold; that of water, moisture; dryness, that of the earth. These essential qualities, however, are not always found in the elements to which they belong in a pure state, and hence every element has several forms and varieties. Among the four essential qualities of the elements, Aristotle

1 Chrysippus, in Stob. Ecl. i. 312: πρώτης μὲν γιγνομένης της ἐκ πυρὸς κατὰ σύστασιν εἰς ἀέρα μεταβολῆς, δευτέρας δ ̓ ἀπὸ τούτου εἰς ὕδωρ, τρίτης δ' ἔτι μᾶλλον κατὰ τὸ ἀνάλογον συνισταμένου τοῦ ὕδατος εἰς γῆν, πάλιν δὲ ἀπὸ ταύτης διαλυομένης καὶ διαχεομένης πρώτη μὲν γίγνεται χύσις εἰς ὕδωρ, δεύτερα δὲ ἐξ ὕδατος εἰς ἀέρα, τρίτη δὲ καὶ ἐσχάτη εἰς πῦρ. On account of this constant change, primary matter is called (Ibid. 316) ἡ ἀρχὴ καὶ ὁ λόγος καὶ ἡ ἀΐδιος δύναμις . . . εἰς αὐτήν τε πάντα καταναλίσκουσα καὶ τὸ [ἐξ] αὑτῆς πάλιν ἀποκαθιστᾶσα τεταγ μένως καὶ ὁδῷ. Epictet. in Stob. Floril. 108, 60: Not only mankind and animals are undergoing perpetual changes, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὰ θεῖα, καὶ νὴ Δι' αὐτὰ τὰ τέτταρα στοιχεῖα ἄνω καὶ κάτω τρέπεται καὶ μεταβάλλει καὶ γῆ τε ὕδωρ γίνεται καὶ ὕδωρ ἀὴρ, οὗτος δὲ πάλιν εἰς αἰθέρα μεταβάλλει· καὶ ὁ αὐτὸς τρόπος τῆς μεταβολῆς ἄνωθεν κάτω. On the fux οἱ things, see also M. Aurel. ii. 3; vii. 19 ; ix. 19; 28. Cic. N. D. ii. 33, 84 : Et eum quatuor sint genera corporum, vicissitudine eorum mundi continuata (= συνεχής ; conf. Sen. Nat. Qu. ii. 2, 2) natura est. Nam ex terra aqua, ex aqua oritur aër, ex aëre

æther: deinde retrorsum vicissim ex æthere aër, ex aëre aqua, ex aqua terra infima. Sic natura his, ex quibus omnia constant, sursum, deorsum, ultro citroque commeantibus mundi partium conjunctio continetur.

* Diog. 137 : εἶναι δὲ τὸ μὲν πῦρ τὸ θερμὸν, τὸ δ ̓ ὕδωρ τὸ ὑγρὸν, τόν τ' ἀέρα τὸ ψυχρὸν καὶ τὴν γῆν τὸ ξηρόν. Plut. Sto. Rep. 43, 1 : The air is, according to Chrysippus, φύσει ζοφερός and πρώτως ψυχρός. Id. De Primo Frig. 9, 1; 17, 1; Galen, Simpl. Medic. ii. 20. Sen. Nat. Qu. iii. 10 ; i. frigidus per se et natura enim aëris Conf. Cic. N. D. ii.

4: Aër
obscurus
gelida est.
10, 26.

Thus the upper portion of the air (Sen. Nat. Qu. iii. 10) is the warmest, the driest, and the rarest. Below, it is dense and cloudy, but yet warmer than in the middle.

• Chrysippus, in Stob. i. 314: λέγεσθαι δὲ πῦρ τὸ πυρώδες πᾶν καὶ ἀέρα τὸ ἀερῶδες καὶ ὁμοίως τὰ λοιπά. Thus Philo, Incorrupt. M. 953, E, who is clearly following the Stoics, distinguishes three kinds of fire: ἄνθραξ, φλόξ, αὐγή. He seems, however, only to refer to terrestrial fire, which, after all, is only one kind of fire.

had already singled out two, viz. heat and cold, as the two active ones, and designated dryness and moisture as the passive ones. The Stoics do the same, only more avowedly. They consider the two elements to which these qualities properly belong to be the seats of all active force, and distinguish them from the two other elements, as the soul is distinguished from the body. In their materialistic system, the finer materials are opposed to the coarser, and occupy the place of incorporeal forces.

The relative density of the elements also determines their place in the universe. Fire and air are light; water and earth are heavy. Fire and air move away from the centre of the universe; 2 water and earth are drawn towards it; and thus,

1 Pp. 155 seq. * Stob. Ecl. í. 346 (Plut. Pl. i. 12, 4). Zeno, Ibid. 406: où πάντως δὲ σῶμα βάρος ἔχειν, ἀλλ ̓ ἀβαρῆ εἶναι ἀέρα καὶ πῦρ φύσει γὰρ ἀνώφοιτα ταῦτ ̓ εἶναι διὰ τὸ μηδενὸς μετέχειν βάρους. Plut. Sto. Rep. 42: In the treatise περὶ κινήσεως, Chrysippus calls fire ἀβαρὲς and ἀνωφερές, καὶ τούτῷ παραπλησίως τὸν ἀέρα, τοῦ μὲν ὕδατος τῇ γῇ μᾶλλον προσνεμομένου, τοῦ δ ̓ ἀέρος, τῷ πυρί. On the other hand, in his Φυσικαὶ τέχναι, he iuelines to the view that air is neither absolutely heavy nor absolutely light.

"This statement must be taken with such modification as the oneness of the world renders necessary. If the upper elements were to move away from the centre, absolutely the world would go to pieces. Hence the

3

motions referred to can only take
place within the enclosure hold-
ing the elements together. Conf.
Chrysippus, in Plut. Sto. Rep. 44,
6: The striving of all the parts
of the world is to keep together,
not to go asunder οὕτω δὲ τοῦ
oλov TELOμévov eis tavtò kal KI-
νουμένου καὶ τῶν μορίων ταύτην
τὴν κίνησιν ἐχόντων ἐκ τῆς τοῦ
σώματος φύσεως, πιθανόν, πᾶσι
τοῖς σώμασιν εἶναι τὴν πρώτην
κατὰ φύσιν κίνησιν πρὸς τὸ τοῦ
κόσμου μέσον, τῷ μὲν κόσμῳ ού
τωσὶ κινουμένῳ πρὸς αὑτὸν, τοῖς
δὲ μέρεσιν ὡς ἂν μέρεσιν οὖσιν.
Achill. Tat. Isag. 132, A: The
Stoics maintain that the world
continues in empty space, èwel
πάντα αὐτοῦ τὰ μέρη ἐπὶ τὸ μέσον
DéveVKE.

The same reason is
assigned by Cleomedes, Meteor.
p. 5.

CHAP.

VIII.

CHAP.
VIII.

from above to below-or, which is the same thing, from without to within the four layers of fire, air, water, and earth are formed. The fire on the circumference goes by the name of Ether. Its most remote portion was called by Zeno Heaven;3 and it differs from earthly fire not only by its greater purity, but also because the motion of earthly fire is in a straight line, whereas the motion of the Ether is circular.5 A radical difference between these two kinds of fire, which Aristotle supposed to exist, because of this difference of motion, the Stoics did not feel it necessary to admit. They could always maintain that, when beyond the limits of its proper locality, fire tried to return to them as quickly as possible, whereas within those limits it moved in the form of a circle.

6

Taking this view of the elements, the Stoics did

1 Diog. 137 : ἀνωτάτω μὲν οὖν εἶναι τὸ πῦρ ὃ δὴ αἰθέρα καλεῖσθαι, ἐν ᾧ πρώτην τὴν τῶν ἀπλανῶν σφαῖραν γεννᾶσθαι, εἶτα τὴν τῶν πλανωμένων. μεθ ̓ ἣν τὸν ἀέρα, εἶτα τὸ ὕδωρ, ὑποστάθμην δὲ πάντων τὴν γῆν, μέσην ἁπάντων oboav. Ibid. 155. To these main masses, all other smaller masses of the same element are attracted. Conf. M. Aurel, ix. 9.

Sen. Nat. Qu. vi. 16, 2. The same thing is meant by Zeno, where he says (Stob. Ecl. i. 538, 554) that the stars are made of fire; not, however, of Tup aтexvov, but of πῦρ τεχνικὸν, which appears in plants as puois, in animals as ψυχή.

In Ach. Tat. Isag. 130, A, he defines οὐρανὸς as αιθέρος τὸ ἔστ

χατον, ἐξ οὗ καὶ ἐν ᾧ ἐστὶ πάντα
ἐμφανῶς. Conf. Diog. 138;
Cleomed. Met. p. 7.
4 See p. 156.

5 Stob. i. 346: τὸ μὲν περίγειον φῶς κατ' εὐθεῖαν, τὸ δ' αἰθέριον περιφερῶς κινεῖται. It is only terrestrial fire that Zeno (Stob. Ecl. i. 356) says moves in a straight line. Cleanthes assigns a conical shape to the stars. See Plut. Plac. ii. 14, 2; Stob. i. 516; Ach. Tat. Isag. 133, B.

They denied it, according to Orig. c. Cels. iv. 56. Cic. Acad. i. 11, 39, says: Zeno dispensed with a quinta natura, being satisfied with four elements: statuebat enim ignem esse ipsam naturam, quæ quæque giguerit, et mentem atque sensus.

CHAP.

VIII.

not deviate to any very great extent, in their views of the Universe, from Aristotle and the views which were generally entertained. In the centre of the C. The Universe reposes the globe of the earth; around universe. it is water, above the water is air. These three strata form the kernel of the world, which is in a state of repose, and around these the Ether revolves in a circle, together with the stars which are set in it. At the top, in one stratum, are all the fixed stars; under the stratum containing the fixed stars are the planets, in seven different strata -Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, Venus, then the Sun, and in the lowest stratum, bordering on the region of air, is the Moon.3 Thus the world consists, as with Aristotle, of a globe containing many strata, one joining the other."

The conical shape of the earth is a matter of course, and is mentioned by Ach. Tat. Isag. 126, c; Plut. Plae. iii. 10, 1 ; 9,3. Cleom. Met. p. 40, gives a proof of it, for the most part taken from Posidonius.

2 Heraclit. Alleg. Hom. c. 36, and Diog. 145, also affirm that the earth is in the centre, unmoved. The reason for this fact is stated by Stob. i. 408, to be its weight. Further proofs in Cleomea. Met. p. 47.

Nor is the world.

the more exalted spots project
as islands. For what is called
continent is also insular. and
δὲ τοῦ ὕδατος τὸν ἀέρα ἐξῆφθαι
каbáяeр thaтμiolévтa σpaiρikŵs
καὶ περικεχύσθαι, ἐκ δὲ τούτου τὸν
αιθέρα ἀραιοτάτον τε καὶ εἰλικρι
VÉσTаTOV. Then follows what is
given in the text as to stars, next
to which comes the stratum of
air, then that of water, and
lastly, in the centre, the earth.
Conf. Achil. Tat. Isag. 126, B.
The language of Cleom d. Met.
c. 3, is somewhat divergent. He
places the sun amongst the
planets, between Mars and Venus.
Archidemus also refused to allow
the earth a place in the centre.
The language of Ach. Tat. Isag.
c. 7, 131, B, is ambiguous.

3 Stob. Ecl. i. 446: Toû dè . . . κόσμου τὸ μὲν εἶναι περιφερόμενον περὶ τὸ μεσον, τὸ δ ̓ ὑπομένον, περιφερόμενον μὲν τὸν αἰθέρα, ὑπομένον δὲ τὴν γῆν καὶ τὰ ἐπ' αὐτῆς vypà κal Tòν àépa. The earth is the natural framework, and, as it were, the skeleton of the world. Around it lies water, out of which 2, 1; i. 6,3; Diog. 140; Cleomed.

Stob. i. 356; Plut. Plac. ii.

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