Saint Paul Department. Articles on the three and one-half following pages are contributed by teachers employed in Saint Paul schools. THE MYTH. BY SARAH C. BROOKS. My April article reached the publishers of SCHOOL EDUCATION too late to appear as a whole, and as a consequence only the meager outline of literature for the first three grades was given, together with a few suggestions as to the use of the scrap-book in collecting and preserving material. The teacher's knowledge should reach beyond scraps and chance suggestions, even to the reasons underlying the arrangement of subjects for different grades in a course of study. The aims to be attained in the use of any material, the knowledge of the sources from whence this matter comes, and the wisdom to select the best, are all essential to success in teaching. The reasons for and the ends to be attained by the use of the fairy story were set forth at considerable length in the March number. Their applicability extends into the second grade, where they should be supplemented before the close of the second year by studies of primitive man, as illustrated in the adventures of Robinson Crusoe, or in typical characters like those set forth in Jane Andrews' Seven Little Sisters. The myth being of a more complex nature, is, according to my best light, a more natural and satisfactory subject of study in the third grade. In the efforts of intelligent and well-meaning people to coordinate subjects in the school curriculum, literature has fallen into the questionable position of an attendant upon natural science studies; and every available myth, especially, is twisted to illustrate some natural phenomenon. Many literary productions lend themselves readily to this service, but not all; and it is a good thing to know something of the source of the original stories, so that we may not fall into error in their application. Do the facts of the case warrant the seizure of this particular myth to be appropriated to this special topic of natural science? If the application is correct upon the ground of origin, what of the ethical and literary value of the story to the child? An intelligent answer to these and similar questions will surely not prove a hindrance to good teaching. Hale's revision of Bulfinch's Age of Fable, pp. 368-371, sets forth several of the theories suggested by philosophers to account for the origin of mythology, the careful study of which might be an excellent corrective for our present lopsided tendency to look at the subject from only one point of view. I beg the reader's permission to briefly transfer to these pages the philosophical theories of Bulfinch, mentioned above, in the interests of those to whom the book may not be for the present available. Perhaps their perusal may afford to some the necessary impetus to further search and investigation. They are given in the following order: "1. The scriptural theory; according to which all mythological legends are derived from the narratives of scripture, though the real facts have been altered and disguised. Thus Deucalion corresponds to Noah, Hercules to Sampson, and Mercury, Vulcan and Apollo to Jubal, Tubal and Tubal-Cain "2. The historical theory; according to which all the persons mentioned in mythology were once real human beings, the legends and traditions relating to whom are the embellishments of later times. Thus, Æolus was a ruler of some islands in the Tyrrhenian sea, who taught his people the use of sails in propelling ships, and Cadmus was an emigrant from Pho nicia, who brought the knowledge of letters to Greece, thus sowing the dragon's teeth. "3. The allegorical theory; according to which all the myths of the ancients were allegorical and symbolical, each containing some moral, religious, philosophical or historical fact, which, in process of time, came to be literally understood. Thus, Saturn, who devoured his own children, as time, which may literally said to devour whatever it brings forth. "4. The astronomical theory; according to which the different stories are corrupted versions of astronomical statements whose true meaning has been forgotten. For example, Fenris devouring the sun. "The physical theory; according to which the elements of air, fire and water were originally objects of religious adoration and the principal deities were personifications of the powers of nature. "We may also add that there are many myths which have arisen from the desire of man to give a reason for those natural phenomena which he cannot understand, and not a few have their rise from a similar desire to give reasons for the names of persons and places." The ancient Greeks could ignore any number of harmless inconsistencies in tracing their descent back to the gods, because one man's claim was as valid as another's; but we cannot afford to rest upon doubtful evidence in the light of today, and must needs give undisputable evidence for any assumption, whether with regard to the genealogy of man or myth. The mythology of Greece and Rome is the source from which the greater number of our stories have been taken for school use in the past. My own brief outline for third grade given in April was taken entirely from that source. We have used the sun myths, the tree and flower myths, stories of Jupiter, Mars, Neptune, Eolus, Hermes, Latonia, Persephone; and the adventures of Ulysis. Beautiful and applicable as are many of these Greek and Roman myths, there is another mythology still simpler, more beautiful and nearer related to us geographically and ancestrally, which should receive our consideration, and that is the mythology of Scandinavian and Teutonic races. Many of our common words and some of our customs are directly traceable to this mythology; notably the names of the days of the week, the English Maypole dance and the decorations of the Christmas tree, which latter custom we have borrowed from the Germans. Odin may be as great an old scamp as Jupiter, but the failings of either need not be paraded before children. In the abundance of material here presented, are a sufficient number of beautiful and inspiring characters to obviate the necessity of dwelling upon those of doubtful morality. The story of creation, as it comes from the shores of Iceland, has an absorbing interest for us who know something of the rigorous northern winter and the delights of returning spring. It runs after the following fashion: "In the beginning, there was only a bottomless deep, with a world of mist in which was a fountain. From this fountain flowed twelve rivers. Afar off, the waters froze, and layers of ice accumulated until the great deep was filled. Southward from this world of mist was the world of light. A warm mist from this southern region of light flowed upon and melted this icy deep. Vapors rose in the air forming clouds, from which sprang the frost giant Ymir and his progeny, together with the cow, Audhumbla, whose milk nourished the giant. Audhumbla had rather a hard time of it, subsisting on hoar frost and salt licked from the ice. Her industry was commendable, however, for, by dint of licking, she finally exposed to view the shining hair and supple, beautiful form of a god, who took unto himself a wife of the giant race, and be came the father of Odin, Vili and Ve. These promising sons slew the giant Ymir, forming the earth out of his body, the seas out of his blood, the mountains of his bones, the trees of his hair, the sky of his skull, the clouds charged with rain and hail of his brains, and Midgard of his brows. Midgard, or midearth, was destined to become the abode of man. Odin then regulates day and night, and the seasons by putting the sun and moon in the sky and directing their courses. With the beginning of sunshine, the vegetable world starts into life, and the earth is filled with beauty. Nothing remains to be done, but to create man, as the gods are satisfied with the results of their labors; whereupon an ash-tree is selected from which the first man, Aske, is made, and the woman Embla, is made from an alder, to be his companion. They are sent to dwell in Midgard, and are the progenitors of the human race. The story next in interest is that of the wonderful threerooted ash tree, Ygdrasil, growing out of Asgard, Jotunheim and Niffleheim, whose branches spread over the whole earth. To this tree we owe the origin of the May-pole and the Christmas tree. In the building of Asgard, the home of the gode, the Norseman's predominating thought of protection against the cold, is impressed by the statement that the walls had to be sufficiently thick and high to afford safe shelter from the frost giants and mountain giants. So necessary was this precaution that a frost giant was invited to undertake the work. The giant architect asks to be given the sun and the goddess of love and Spring as remuneration for his services, two such pressious possessions that all Asgard is plunged in gloom at thought of their loss. Lusty Thor saves them, however, and pays the giant in his own way. All evil comes to the gods through Loki, who is supposed to be a frost giant, and his progeny. Frey and Freya, and Baldur the Good, are characters bringing out the Norseman's delight in the glorious but fleeting summer time. Induna, with her apples of youth and her grove, also belong to this season of beauty and delight. Earthquakes are accounted for by the efforts of Ymir to rid himself of the burden of the ash-tree, Ygdrasil. Thunder is the sound of Thor's hammer, and lightning the flash of his red beard in the sky. The beautiful northern lights, moving and quivering in the dark sky, are caused by the flickering armor of the Valkyrior, Odin's daughters, conducting those slain in battle, over the rainbow bridge, to the joys of Valkalla. Pupils will hear of the Valkyrior later in the story of Seigfreid, upon which one of Wagner's operas is founded. The death of Baldur the Good marks the beginning of the end of the story, which never loses interest from start to finish. The student will find Bulfinch's "Age of Fable" and "The Heroes of Asgard" to be interesting and reliable sources of information upon this subject. Interesting material will also be found in "My Musical Memories," by Haweis, in the Wagner chapter; in “The Standard Operas,” by Upton, the same subject as that in "Musical Memories;" in "Thelma, a Ro mance of Norway," by Marie Corelli, Lovell, Coryell & Co., New York; in a "Romance of Iceland," by H. R. Haggard; and in an article in the Cosmopolitan, April, '94, entitled "A Winter trip to Norway." All sources of information are legitimate, notes of travel, the romance, the drama, when one desires to become more familiar with the habits and customs of an ancient people whose literature cannot otherwise be fully comprehended. The genius of the writer lays hold of our imagination, and aids us to transform the dead past into a living reality of the present. BOOKS OF REFERENCE Fairy Tales, Anderson. Fairy Tales, Grimm. Seven Little Sisters, Jane Andrews. Robinson Crusoe. Nature Myths and Stories, Flora J. Cook. Hale's Bulfinch's Age of Fable, S. W. Tilton & Co., Boston, publishers. The Heroes of Asgard, McMillan. ARITHMETIC IN THE FIRST GRADE. MISS MARY HAUCHETT, TEACHERS' TRAINING SCHOOL. Number in the B 1st class was incidental only. Whenever it chanced to occur in the reading lesson, the children were taught to count, the main object being to find the how many. Figures were also learned incidentally from the pages of reading books and from the music chart. Regular number lessons commenced when the class began the A 1st grade work. Each child was given a foot measure and told to find the figure 1. The class found the figures from 1 to 11 as called for by the teacher. They were then told that the length from the end of the measure to the figure 1 showed the length of one inch. All held up measures pointing with the thumb showing one inch, two inches, three inches, etc. In this way, they learned to read the measures. When asked to show twelve inches a bright boy objected because there was no 12 on his measure. All began at the "one inch end" of the measure again and counted the number of inches carefully and the class decided that the measure was really twelve inches long, the boy who had objected volunteering the information that there was not "room enough to put the 12 on." The class by this time were thoroughly interested in the subject and took great pleasure in showing any number of inches as rapidly as the teacher could call for them. They learned that another name for twelve inches is one foot, that six inches is half a foot, and the rule evolved by the children, "to divide anything into halves you must divide it into two even parts," was given promptly whenever a child failed to divide his measure correctly. The fraction was written upon the blackboard by the teacher and read by the children. Problems similar to the following were given, the children looking at their measures while thinking the answers. John has one string six inches long and another string half a foot long. How long are both strings? May had a stick of molasses candy one foot long. She gave six inches of it to her sister. How long a piece had she left? What part of the whole piece had she left? What part of a foot did she give away? The class were then asked to divide the measure into three "even parts." Those who failed, held their measures so that the class could see them and the children criticised. When all could readily show the three even parts they were asked to think of a name for each part. After reviewing, dividing into two even parts and writing 1⁄2 on the blackboard, one of the children said, "call one part one three," and when asked to show what he meant on the blackboard he promptly wrote. The children learned to find from the measures and to express on the blackboard of twelve inches, % of twelve inches, the number of feet in one yard, in of a yard, and in %%% yards. They learned that three fours are twelve and that two sixes are twelve. They learned to draw, free hand, vertical, horizontal and oblique lines of given lengths, one child drawing while the others looked at their measures and compared before criticising, then measured the line drawn to prove. After two weeks work with the measures the majority of the class of twenty could estimate quite accurately length in feet and inches of the various objects in the room. Liquid measure was next studied, the children measuring carefully to find the number of pints in one quart. After the teacher had shown the class "a short way to write pints and quarts," 2 pts. 1 qt. was written upon the board by the children. The teacher then drew, very rapidly, even numbers of pint measures on the board, the children giving the number of quarts. When they could think the number of quarts from the picture in two, four, six, eight, ten and twelve pints, the measures were again brought into the class and one pint of water put into the quart measure. All saw that one pint filled the quart measure half full and a child wrote 1 pt. = 1⁄2 qt. on the board. Then odd numbers of pint measures were drawn by the teacher, the children giving the number of quarts and pints or quarts and half-quarts. When they could think from pictures the number of quarts in three, five, seven, nine and eleven pints, and write and read expressions similar to the following, 3 pts. 1 qts., they were given pictures of quart measures and asked to think the number of pints. The children were very enthusiastic in the work and several of them asked for gallons, before the class as a whole were ready for the next step. While teaching gallons the children learned 1-4, 2-4, 3-4. They also used the terms one quarter, two quarters, three quarters. They learned that 2-4 12, the number of fours in eight, and reviewed the number of fours in twelve. Many problems similar to the following were given: I bought two quarts of milk Monday, and one gallon Tuesday. How much milk did I buy? A milkman made two and one-half gallons of ice cream. He sold one quart to John, half a gallon to May, and one fourth of a gallon to Eva. How much cream had he left? The children were encouraged to express the answers in different ways, one child saying, "He had six quarts left," another, "He had one and one-half gallons left," and another, "He had one gallon and two quarts left." Area was next considered. Volunteers were called for to go to the board and draw a square. The class criticised, others tried, and one child measured results and corrected until they succeeded in drawing a square. They were then asked to draw a square of given dimensions, the teacher holding the measure before the class to show the length of one side. A great deal of practice in drawing squares of different sizes was given. Then they drew a square four inches and were asked to think (looking at the square) how to divide it into figures two inches square. The first child who tried, succeeded. They divided a square eight inches into figures four inches square, a square ten inches into figures five inches square, and a square twelve inches into figures six inches square. A square nine inches was then drawn, and after several attempts, and measuring to prove the work incorrect, one child succeeded in dividing it into figures three inches square. One square yard was then drawn upon the floor, (because the blackboard was too narrow) and divided into square feet. For busy work the class drew, using the measures, oblongs, and squares of given dimensions, and found the number of square inches they contained. After three weeks' work in area the children could, for busy work, draw a square three Characters-Spring (girl), Summer (girl), and children to represent the following flowers: Two crocuses, two violets, two dandelions, two roses, two butterflies, two robins, two bluebirds and two bees. Costumes may be as simple or elaborate as teacher desires. The songs indicated may be replaced by others already known. The effect of the different marches, the entrance and departure of Spring and Summer may be made most effective by the introduction of fancy steps and marches. The action of the birds and insects must be subdued so as not to interfere with the harmony of the whole, and yet complete the effect sought, viz., the reawakening of Spring and the fulfilled beauty of Summer. The following costumes are suggested: Spring, green head-dress, wand and dress trimmed with flowers. Summer, head and dress wreathed with summer flowers. Flowers to wear caps of colored tissue paper to correspond with flower represented. Birds, Bees and Butterflies to have wings of color to correspond to birds and insects named. Do you know what we Bees and Butterflies do, We know all the flowers and all the birds, We tell what the wind is singing about, What the flowers think and the little birds sing, And we and the birds and the lovely flowers (Spring and Summer stand in middle of stage, Flowers form circle and dance around them, Birds and Bees and Butterflies fly around outside circle, and all sing following song:) Air: "There's Music in the Air." SONG. Spring has come with birds and flowers, Touches of her magic hand Wake to beauty all the land. In the trees the birdies sing, Through the woods their sweet songs ring, From the nest in leafy glade, Neath the green trees welcome shade. Brightly pass the summer hours In the fields where children stray, Let us dance the hours away. We will deck the forest bowers, Strew the Summer's path with flowers; Lovely make the summer land. (While singing last lines, form as follows: Spring, Violets, Crocuses, Dandelions, Bluebirds, Robins; Summer, Roses, Butterflies and Bees, and all Flowers dance and Birds fly off stage. Science Department. U. O. Cox, Editor. All communications intended for this department should be addressed to Ulysses O. Cox, Mankato, Minn. COMMENTS ON THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY. BY JULIUS HORTVET, EAST SIDE HIGH SCHOOL, MINNEAPOLIS. PAPER III. As a proper basis on which to discuss the selection of apparatus and the arrangement and care of the laboratory, I have thought it best first to present in outline a laboratory course intended as introductory and to cover, say a term of four months. The matter here given is only suggestive and is intended to direct attention to a more careful study of this method of teaching chemistry. The important point urged here is that whatever is done in the choice and arrangement of experiments should be a result of independent thought on the part of the teacher. The persistent aim should be to put the laboratory course of study on a more uniformly rational and practical basis as a factor in education. Mistakes will be made and there will be difficulties to overcome, but let every teacher adopt the plan of being thoroughly original and thoughtful and we will hasten the time when the usual cutand-dried method, as outlined in current laboratory manuals, will be done away with. Among the printed manuals there are some that show signs of careful preparation and serve as valuable aids to the teacher in the selection and arrangement of his experiments; but there is an increasing number of such works that seem to be mere compilations from larger texts. Given a book that has become recognized as standard, and there appears to be no limit to the number of so-called laboratory manuals resulting therefrom. In fact, we are generally given to believe that there can be no deviation from the usual order followed out in common texts. The prevailing plan seems to be to begin almost at once with oxygens, do as many things as can be done with that element, including some pyrotechnics without which the student's experience is considered imperfect; take up hydrogen in the same way and also nitrogen, then pass on through the hologens and the metals. Such a course presents itself more as a panorama of experiences than as an orderly development of ideas. Incidentally the student touches upon vital principles, gets glimpses of true meanings, acquires some skill in manipulation, and receives a certain amount of training in observation and reasoning. The faithfulness with which so many teachers adhere to such methods only increases the impression that we are working blindly, or worse, perhaps, with closed eyes. Why cannot every teacher prepare his own outlines of experiments-based on his own experience and the best ideas obtainable from others? In this way the laboratory method would acquire a new meaning and an increased interest; the teacher would soon experience a greater freedom and independence and begin to comprehend more fully the principles of the science. Following regularly this method, no two years will show outlines identical in all respects, for each year will mark an increased mastery of the subject. Much of the difficulty pupils have in comprehending the subject as they come to the later parts of the course and much of the failing interest, I am convinced, is to be attributed to a lack of proper foundation in fundamental conceptions-to a failure on the part of the teacher to develop in the pupil's mind a familiar notion of natural laws and processes. Such fundamental ideas should become perfectly natural to the student's mind early in the course-should be, in a sense, second nature in their processes of reasoning. Take, for instance, the simple idea of a chemical change-this can become a reality only after many and varied experiments. The point is, that there should be more fullness and variety in order to create a satisfactory conception. Such notions as those of the conservation and permutation of matter and energy are well worth two months' labor, or more, if they finally become fixed realities. As chemistry deals primarily with the nature of substances, there should be more done at the beginning and throughout in the way of a preliminary consideration of distinguishing properties, physical as well as chemical. First principles should not be confounded in the student's mind with theories. A writing of symbols and equations too early in the course only stultifies and is afterwards only a hindrance. An illustration of the evil coming out of the prevailing practice is seen in the answer to the following question given to a class that had nearly finished chemistry: "What facts govern our knowledge of the composition of water?" Answer. “Water is a compound of H and O because H2 +0 = H2 O." I submit the following brief outline, believing that if a large part of the time usually given to chemistry in the high schools was devoted to some such introductory course, there would result a better general preparation in first principles and in methods of laboratory work. I choose to begin with the examination of water because that substance has an intimate relation to chemical processes throughout and, also, because it affords a good introduction to primary operations. Water. 1.-Density.-Specific gravities-Use of the balance to be taught in this connection. 2. Water in relation to heat. (a) Melting and boiling points. (b) Distillation-Principle and use of the thermometer and use of distilling apparatus. (c) Expansion and contraction of water-density of ice compared with water. (d) Conduction and convection. (e) Capacity of water for heat.-Latent heat of water and latent heat of steam.--Introduce quantitative determinations. 3.-Water as a solvent,-degrees determined quantitatively with several substances. Compare solvent power at different temperatures. Hard water--determine by weighing per cent. of non-volatile impurities. 6.--Sulphur and carbon, iron, copper, etc. Quantitative method where possible. Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Fluorine. 1.—Preparation of each. 2.-Compounds of each with hydrogen and oxygen. 3.-Compare the elements as to physical and chemical properties. 4. Continue further the study of acids-Note carefully properties and methods of preparation. Introduce chemical symbols of compounds only when they are naturally called for and equations representing reactions when pupils are prepared to comprehend all that is involved. Never allow symbols and chemical terms to supersede an understanding of the things studied. Enough has been given here to illustrate and serve as basis on which to consider in another article the equipment and management of the laboratory. School Boards contemplating changes can learn the address of the best Western and Eastern teachers, willing to make a change, from the Teachers' Co-operative Association, 70 Dearborn St., Chicago, Orville Brewer, manager. We can assure all who write them of confidential and honorable treatment. |