king of Chaldea. Against this Pharaoh Ezekiel pronounced several of his prophecies. See Ezek. xxix. xxx. He is called Apries in Herodotus, I. ii. c. 161. He is also mentioned in Habakkuk ii. 15, 16. See also Isaiah xix. 11, and Jeremiah xlvi. 16, &c. See APRIES and EGYPT.

PHARAON, or FARO, is the name of a game of chance, the principal rules of which are: the banker holds a pack consisting of fifty-two cards; he draws all the cards one after the other, and lays them down alternately at his right and left hand; then the ponte may at his pleasure set one or more stakes upon one or more cards, either before the banker has begun to draw the cards, or after he has drawn any number of couples. The banker wins the stake of the ponte when the card of the ponte comes out in an odd place on his right hand, but loses as much to the ponte when it comes out in an even place on his left hand. The banker wins half the ponte's stake when it happens to be twice in one couple. When the card of the ponte, being but once in the stock, happens to be last, the ponte neither wins nor loses; and the card of the ponte being but twice in the stock, and the last couple containing his card twice, he then loses his whole

stake.

3 y 2 x (n-1)'

In the third case his gain is

3

y, or

2n-5

+

or

BX (n-1)' supposing y}. In the fourth case the gain of the banker, or the loss of the 2n-5 ponte, is (n-1) x (n-3) 2x (n-1) x (n-3) supposing y. De Moivre has calculated a table, exhibiting this gain or loss for any particular circumstances of the play; and he observes that at this play the least disadvantage of the ponte, under the same circumstances of cards remaining in the stock, is when the card of the ponte is but twice in it; the next greater when three times, the next when once, and the greatest when four times. He has also demonstrated that the whole gain per cent. of the banker, upon all the money that is adventured at this game, is £2 19s. 10d. See De Moivre's Doctrine of Chances, page 77, &c.

PHAREZ, son of Judah and Tamar (Gen. xxxviii, 27, 28, &c.), so named from the circumstance attending his birth, by his mother Pharez, e. one breaking forth. His sons are mentioned in Numb. xxvi. 20, 21; and his posterity down to Joseph and Mary, in Matt. i., and Luke iii. PHAREZITES, the descendants of Pharez.

PHARI. A valley and fortress in the southern part of Tibet, near the Bootan frontier, named also Parry Jeungh and Parisdong. Lat. 27° 58° N., long. 89° 1' E.

The valley of Phari is extensive; and the station of the Phari lama, who is here a sort of prince, being superintendant of a goombah or monastery, and governor of an extensive tract of rocks and deserts, which yield verdure only during the mildest season of the year; at which time this neighbourhood is frequented by large herds of long haired cattle. The musk-deer are also found in great abundance here. There are also partridges, pheasants, quails, and a great multitude of foxes. Winter may be said perpetually to reign in this fortress; the mountain Chumulari is for ever clothed with snow, and from its remarkable form is probably that which is occasionally visible from Phurneah and Rajemall. In the vicinity wheat does not ripen, yet it is sometimes cultivated as forage for cattle. Such is the intensity of the cold here, although in so low a latitude as 28° N., that animals exposed in the open fields are sometimes found dead with their heads split open by frost. In 1792 the Chinese established a military post at this place. The fortress is of an irregular form, but deemed of great strength. On the north-west is an extensive suburb, and on the south a large basin of water. PHARIS, a town of Laconia.-Paus. iii. c. 10.

PHARISA'ICAL, adj. PHARISA ISM, n. s.

From Pharisee; Heb. 5, to sepa

rate. Ritual; externally religious.

The causes of superstition are pleasing and sensual rites, excess of outward and pharisaical holine over-great reverence of traditions, which cannot but load the church.

Bacon.

Suffer us not to be deluded with pharisaical washings instead of christian reformings. King Charles. St. Jerome, whom they fondly term their cardinal, compares some popish fashions of his time with the pharisaical. Bp. Hall. To some, Pharisaism seems rather a several order thana sect. Id.

PHARISAISM. Serrarius places the origin of Pharisaism about the time of Ezra; Maldonat makes it only to have arisen a short time before our Saviour's birth. Others, with more probability than either, refer it to the time of the Mac

"cabees.

PHARISEES, a famous sect of the Jews, who distinguished themselves by their zeal for the traditions of the elders, which, they pretended, were delivered to Moses from Mount Sinai along with the law, and therefore both were of equal authority. From their rigorous observance of these traditions, they looked upon themselves as more holy than other men, and therefore separated themselves from those whom they thought sinners or profane, so as not to eat or drink with them; and hence from the Hebrew word D, i. e. to separate, they had the name of Pharisees or Separatists. This sect was one of the most ancient and most considerable among the Jews; but its original is not well known. Serrarius places their rise about the time of Esdras, because it was then that the Jews first began to have interpreters of their traditions. Maldonet,

on the other hand, thinks it cannot have arisen among the Jews till a little before the time of Christ. Others, perhaps with more probability, refer the origin of the Pharisees to the time of the Maccabees. Dr. Lightfoot contends, that Pharisaism rose up gradually, from a period which he does not assign, to the maturity of a sect; and it is certain from Josephus, that in the time of John Hyrcanus, the high-priest and prince of the Asmonean line, about 108 years before Christ, this sect was not only formed, but made a considerable figure; as also that it had advanced to a high degree of popularity and power about eighty years before Christ. Calmet places their origin about A. M. 3820, B. C. 184. According to Basnage, Aristobulus, an Alexandrian Jew, and a Peripatetic philosopher, who flourished about 125 years before Christ, and wrote some allegorical commentaries on the Scripture, was the author of those traditions, by an adherence to which the Pharisees were principally distinguished.

This sect was in great repute in the time of our Saviour. They held a resurrection of the body, and supposed a certain bone to remain uncorrupted, to furnish the matter of which the resurrection

body was to be formed. They did not, how

ever, believe that all mankind were to be raised from the dead. A resurrection was the privilege of the children of Abraham alone, who were all to rise on Mount Zion; their incorruptible bones, wherever they might be buried, being carried to that mountain below the surface of the earth. The state of future felicity in which the Pharisees believed was very gross: they imagined that men in the next world, as well as in the present, were to eat and drink, and enjoy the pleasures of love, each being re-united to his former wife. Hence the objection stated by the Sadducees, which our Saviour so satisfactorily refuted.-See Matt. xxii. 23-33. The Pharisees seem to have had some confused notions, probably derived from the Chaldeans and Persians, respecting the pre-existence of souls; and hence Christ's disciples asked hi.n concerning the blind man.-See John ix. 2. With the Essenes, they held absolute predestination; and with the Sadducees, free-will; but how they reconciled these seemingly incompatible doctrines is no where explained. The sect of the Pharisees was not extinguished by the ruin of the Jewish commonwealth. The greatest part of the modern Jews

are still of this sect; being as much devoted to traditions or the oral law as their ancestors were. See KARAITES, ESSENES, SADDUCEES, &C.

PHARITE, people of Pharis. See PHARE. PHARMACA, among the ancients, meant medicated or enchanted compositions of herbs, minerals, &c., some of which, when taken inwardly, were supposed to cause blindness, madness, love, &c.; others infected by touch; such was the garment sent by Medea to Creusa, prepared secundum artem; and others operated upon persons at a distance. Pharmaca soteria were employed as antidotes against these mischievous compositions: thus the herb moly preserved Ulysses from the magical influence of Circe. The laurel, the rhamnus, the flea-bane, the jasperstone, were used for similar purposes. See Potter's Græc. Ant.

PHARMACI, in antiquity, were two persons who were employed in the lustration or purification of cities. Some say they were both men ; but others maintain that a man to represent the males, and a woman to represent the females, performed this office. They performed sacrifice, and wore figs about their necks called oλkaons; those of the man were blackish, and those of the woman white. Figs were an emblem of fertility. PHARMACITIS. See AMPELITES.

PHARMACO-CHEMIA, a branch of the chemical art, which treats of the preparation of medicines. It is so named by way of distinction from Spagarico-chemia, a species of chemistry wholly employed about the transmutation of metals by the philosopher's stone.

PHARMACOPΙΑ, (from Greek φαρμακον remedy, and Toy to make), means a treatise describing the preparations of medicines, with their uses, manner of application, &c. We have various pharmacopoeias, as those of Bauderon, Quercetan, Zwelfer, Charas, Bates, Salmon, Lemery, Lewis, &c. The latest and most in esteem are the Edinburgh and London dispensatories. See PHARMACY.

PHARMACOPIUS, or PHARMACOPOLA, an apothecary; or a person who prepares and sells medicines. See APOTHECARY. The word is seldom used but by way of ridicule. It is from Greek papuakov and whev to sell. Horace, Satire 2, lib. i. ver. i.

See

PHARMACUM. Greek papuakov. A medicament or medicine; whether of a salutary or poisonous (uality

(Fr. pharmacopée) φαρμακον and Telew, pappaxov (Fr. pharmacie). All from papparov, a medicine. Pharmaceutic and pharmaceutical are, relating to the knowledge or preparation of medicines: pharmacologist, one who writes upon drugs or medicines: pharmacopoeia, a dispensatory or book containing rules for making or compounding medicines: pharmacopolist, one who sells them: pharmacy, the art or practice of preparing medicines. See below.

Garth.

Each dose the goddess weighs with watchful eye, So nice her art in impious pharmacy. The osteocolla is recommended by the pharmacologists as an absorbent and conglutinator of broken Woodward on Fossils.

bones.

SECT. I. Of the more general agents influencing pharmaceutical combinations, including 1. Attraction; a. attraction of aggregation; b. chemical attraction or affinity; 2. Repulsion. Powers by which it is produced: caloric, light, electricity, and galvanism. SECT. II. Of the constitution and combinations of substances. 1. Of solids. 2. Of fluids.

3. Of aëriform substances or gases. SECT. III. Of pharmaceutical operations, and the description of the apparatus.

This arrangement of Dr. Thomson is exceedingly perspicuous, and calculated to convey just notions of the principles of the science; but, as the subjects of the two first sections have been considered under the head of CHEMISTRY, We refer our readers to that article, and proceed directly to the more immediate objects of pharmaceutical science: viz. that of effecting changes of an artificial kind in medicinal substances which are presented simple by the hand of nature. Pharmaceutical operations may be said to be either mechanical or chemical; the first applying to alteration of mode; the second effecting a change of essence. Thus pulverisation, trituration, levigation, granulation, are instances of the mechanical division of bodies; while sifting, washing, filtration, are modes of mechanical separation of their parts; the former being the application of a power or powers to overcome the cohesive force by which the particles of bodies are held together, the bodies still retaining their

VOL. XVII.

identity as to quantity, the latter consisting of modes of taking one portion of a mass from another.

The chemical changes effected in substances by pharmaceutical processes are arranged in three classes: 1. Operations which produce changes by a separation of their constituent parts without any manifest decomposition. (It is sometimes difficult to say where mechanical change ceases and chemical change commences, and it is in this link of combination between formative and essential change that the operations in this first division are to be arranged.) 2. Operations in which bodies acting upon each other produce obvious decomposition, or essentially change the nature of such bodies. 3. Operations in which combinations of bodies with oxygen are effected by means of augmented temperature.

MECHANICAL OPERATIONS.

1. Pulverisation.-This consists in reducing substances to powder by beating, or forcibly overcoming the aggregative attraction by which the particles of bodies cohere. It is usually performed in mortars, which are made of various materials according to the substances acted upon, for in some cases the materials of the mortar would enter into chemical combination with the

matter employed, and thus the process would be interfered with. Mortars are principally made of marble. iron, brass, glass, porcelain, or Wedgewood's ware. Of whatever materials mortars are made, they should be internally at bottom of the form of a hollow hemisphere, and their sides should have such a degree of inclination as to make the substances fall back to the bottom every time the pestle is lifted. The operation, however, is retarded when too great a portion of the ingredients falls under the pestle; hence a large quantity of any substance should not be put into the mortar at a time, and the finer parts should from time to time be removed.

Vegetable matters require to be dried before they can be pulverised; and woods, roots, and barks should be previously cut, chipped, or rasped. When roots are very fibrous, as those of ginger for example, it is advisable to cut them diagonally, which prevents the powder from being full of hair-like filaments. Resins, and gum resins, which soften in a moderate temperature, or in warm weather, should be powdered in cold weather, and only gently beaten to prevent them from running into a paste instead of forming a powder; and when the powdered substance is intended to be dissolved in any menstruum except a pure alkali, the pulverisation is much facilitated by mixing them with a portion of clean well washed white sand. The pulverisation of camphor is assisted by the addition of a few drops of alcohol; sugar is the best addition to aromatic oily substances as nutmegs, mace, &c.; and to the emulsive seeds some dry powder must be added, without which they cannot

I

of the substances.

Levigation is in fact trituration assisted by the addition of a fluid, which does not act chemically, or as a solvent, upon the material. This process is usually performed upon a flat stone, and the rubbing is effected by a muller of the same material with the stone. Earths are thus prepared for pharmaceutical purposes, and also some of the metals. Water or spirits of wine, or some unctuous material, are usually employed in levigation, and the substances used in the operation are for the most part previously pul

verised.

Granulation is used for the mechanical division of some of the metals. The substance is

melted or beaten into fine leaves, and then stirred briskly until it cools; or it is poured in its melted state into water, and stirred or agitated till it cools. The process is called granulation, on account of the metallic particles being separated by it in the form of small grains.

Rasping and filing scarcely need be mentioned as modes of dividing substances.

Sifting consists in separating the finer from the coarser parts of substances, by causing the former to pass through apertures in sieves formed of iron wire, hair cloth, or gauze. For very light and valuable powders it is necessary to employ close sieves, otherwise a great deal of the matter would be lost in the agitation.

Washing or elutriation consists in agitating the material in a fluid which does not act upon it as a solvent, but merely suspends it. The liquor containing thus the finer particles of the material is poured off from the sediment, and suffered to remain at rest for some time, when these fine and washed particles gradually settle, and the supernatant water is poured off, or drawn from the material by a syphon.

Filtration is a species of fluid sifting; filters are generally made of fine close flannel, or linen, or unsized paper, called filtering paper. When these are large it is usual to form them into a conical bag, and suspend this bag from a hoop or frame. When paper is employed it is doubled up in the shape of a cone, and inserted into a funnel; it is often requisite to introduce glass rods between the paper and the funnel, in order

to prevent the sides of the paper and funne! from being so closely in contact as to interfere with the percolation. When very acrid liquors, such as the strong acids and alkalis, require filtration, the glass funnel that is employed is partly filled with powdered quartz, and sometimes sand placed over this, so arranged that the coarser materials shall be at the bottom of the funnel, and the finer on the surface. The substance to be filtered is poured on the surface of the sand slowly, which it passes through, as also the lower substrata, and thus are the impurities of the liquor left behind.

Expression is a species of filtration: but in this last case force is employed. Expression is principally employed to obtain the juices of fresh vegetables, and the unctuous vegetable oils. The material is first beaten or bruised, then enclosed in a bag, not completely filled, and subjected to pressure between the plates of a screw press. The pressure should be applied gradually.

Vegetables treated in this manner ought to be perfectly fresh; and they should for the most part be subjected to the pressure immediately upon being bruised, for the bruising disposes them to ferment. But subacid fruits yield more juice, and of a better quality, when they are permitted to stand a few days in a wooden or earthen vessel previous to pressure. Sometimes, when the vegetable matter to be expressed is not very juicy, the addition of a little water is necessary. It is proper to peel oranges and lemons before they are pressed, in order to prevent the essential oil of the rind from mixing with the expressed juice. For unctuous seeds iron plates are used in expression, and the bruised seeds may be previously subjected in a bag to the steam of hot water.

Despumation is employed in the instance of fluids being so thick and clammy as not to pass with facility through a filter. The liquor is heated, and thus throws up a scum, which is to be carefully removed; or more generally whites of eggs are employed in the process of despumation; this entangles the impurities of the fluid, and rises up with them to the surface. In the case of clarifying spirituous liquors isinglass may be employed, for the process which coagulates in the spirit without the assistance of heat, and forms a scum which descends to the bottom of the vessel, and carries the impurities with it.

'Besides the above methods of mechanically separating the parts of substances from one another, fluids of different specific gravities, mixed together, are separated by means of the separatory funnel. It is chiefly used for separating the essential oils from the water with which they are entangled during their distillation. The funnel is first stopped at the bottom, and then filled with the mixed fluids, the heaviest of which gradually subsides into the narrow part below; and when the cork at the bottom is taken out, and the stopper above a little loosened, it flows out; by which means the lighter is easily obtained in a separate state. Some of the essential oils are heavier, others lighter than water; but both can be thus separated with equal facility."

The above quotation is from Dr. Thomson; and in what follows respecting the chemical

operations of pharmacy we shall be principally indebted to the publication of that author.

The changes of which we have above spoken, as in some sort holding an intermediate place between mere formative and absolutely essential alteration, are effected by 1st, Caloric, inducing liquefaction, fusion, evaporation, exsiccation, distillation, rectification, dephlegmation, sublimation; by 2d, Water, and other fluids, causing solution, lixiviation, maceration, digestion, infusion, decoction, extraction; 3d, By other chemical agents inducing coagulation.

Calorific changes. Liquefaction. This term is applied to that operation by which certain bodies, when exposed to a moderate heat, are rendered fluid after passing through several intermediate states of softness. Fat, lard, wax, resin, and many other similar bodies, undergo liquefaction; which is therefore employed in pharmacy to facilitate the combination of these bodies in the formation of ointment. The best vessels for conducting the process of liquefaction are earthenware pans.

Fusion differs from liquefaction in the sudden change from the solid to the fluid state, which those bodies which are liable to it suffer on exposure to heat. There are no intermediate states of softness; but the fusible body, when heated to a certain point, immediately assumes the fluid form. This point differs very considerably in different solids; but in general simple substances are less fusible than compounds; and some of the simple earths cannot be fused without the addition of some other substances to promote their fusion. These are generally saline bodies, and are denominated fluxes. Fusion is usually performed in crucibles, the best of which are made of very pure clay or potter's earth. They are made of various forms, three cornered, or round, and fitted with covers.

Crucibles are also made of cast-iron, of fine silver, and of platina. The first, however, are destroyed when saline substances are melted in them; and when made red hot in a current of air are apt to suffer oxidation; but in other respects they are durable, and can sustain suddeu alternations of heat and cold without cracking. Some of the metallic crucibles combine many of the best qualities necessary for this set of instruments; particularly those of platina: which, however, are too expensive for ordinary

use.

Evaporation is the dissipation of a liquid by means of heat, and is employed in pharmacy generally with the view of obtaining in a separate state any fixed substance which may be combined with water or some other evaporable fluid. Thus, by exposing an aqueous solution of a salt to a certain degree of heat, the caloric which combines with the water renders it volatile, and disperses it in the form of an elastic aeriform fluid; while the particles of the salt, being brought nearer to each other, and within the sphere of their mutual attraction, reunite, and the salt is obtained in its concrete state. In spontaneous evaporation the air is the principal agent, the dissipation being independent on artificial caloric or increased temperature. It is easy to conceive that the process of evaporation

is only had recourse to when the part of the body which is thus dissipated is of little value; when a solid is to be separated from a more valuable fluid, such as alcohol, distillation and not evaporation is employed.

Evaporating dishes are made of different materials; the best are those of biscuit porcelain Inade by Wedgewood, When glass or earthenware dishes are employed the heat is best applied through the medium of sand; or, if a still more moderate heat be necessary, by means of boiling water over which the evaporating dish should be placed. The first is named a sand-bath; the second a water-bath. Evaporating dishes in the general way should be flat-bottomed and shallow, so as to expose a large surface to the action of the applied heat.

Exsiccation is a variety of evaporation. It is generally employed for depriving salts of their water of crystallisation. The bodies to be exsiccated are heated in an iron ladle or pot, and undergo first what is called the watery fusion, that is, are heated and dissolved in their own fluid; this fluid, by continuing the process, is evaporated, and the body is left in the form of a dry mass. When the substances to be exsiccated are liable to decomposition in a temperature above 212°, as is the case with some of the compound oxides, the process must be conducted by the heat of a water-bath.

but

Distillation is also a species of evaporation, differing from it only in this, that the vapor of volatile matter, instead of being dissipated and lost in the air, is collected and condensed in close vessels. Some of the vessels used in this process will be found in the plates appended to the article CHEMISTRY. The simplest is the retort and receiver. The common still is a well known apparatus. It consists of two parts, the boiler, and the head or capital. The boiler, which is the part to which the fire is applied and contains the materials, is of a cylindrical shape, and may be sunk in a furnace or immersed in a water-bath when the temperature requires to be nicely regulated. The head or capital is a large hollow globe, the upper part of which is drawn out into a tapering pipe bent to a curve or arch, and terminating in the serpentine or worm. These parts are generally made of copper; the worm is a long pewter pipe of a decreasing diameter which winds in a spiral direction obliquely through a deep tub filled with cold water. The body, head, and worm require to be luted together; but in general slips of paper dipped in flour, paste, or pieces of wet bladder, are sufficient for this purpose. In this apparatus the vapors are raised into the head, whence they pass into the worm, where they are condensed and issue in drops from the lower end of the pipe. By degrees the water in the refrigeratory becomes warmed and requires to be renewed, and thence the necessity of the tube being furnished with a stop-cock, by which the heated water may be drawn off without disturbing the apparatus. As in this species of distillation the vapor ascends before it is condensed, it is named distillation per ascensum. The distillation by the retort or cucurbit is named distillation per latus.

I 2