robust body. They are not, however, often fatal to man, and in this respect they offer a striking contrast to the American Crotalida. While statistics prove that death in some instances follows the bite of the larger Trimerisuri, it is still easier to show that its more common effect is but a train of unpleasant symptoms, of varying duration, ending in recovery. The general health and vigour of the patient usually enable him to resist the influence of the venom, where a more weakly subject would probably succumb. There is still less evidence of the homicidal powers of the other Indian Crotalida. Of these the most interesting is the genus Halys, represented by two species in British India. Halys is remarkable for the long spinous scale in which its tail terminates-a rudiment of the "rattle" which some of its formidable American relatives possess.

6

Of the two Indian Viperidæ one is the Tic-polonga,' or Russell's viper, a most fatal snake. The other is the little Echis carinata, a species, however, which can no longer be separated from the Echis arenicola of Egypt. This prettily marked brownish snake may reach a length of twenty-three inches; usually it is much smaller. Evidence as to its lethal powers is wanting. Dr. Günther, writing in 1864, was not able to prove that its bite is ever fatal to man. Dr. Fayrer holds a more positive opinion, judging from the fact that an Echis in his possession "killed a fowl in four minutes, another in two minutes, and a dog in about four hours." He describes it as "very fierce and aggressive-it is always on the defensiveready to attack; it throws itself into a double coil, the folds of which are in perpetual motion, and as they rub against each other, they make a loud rustling sound, very like hissing. This sound is produced by the three or four outer rows of carinated scales, which are very prominent and point downwards at a different angle to the rest; their friction against each other causes the sound." He adds that "its eye has a peculiarly vicious appearance."

The Elapidæ having the sides of the neck dilatable to form a hood constitute the sub-family of Najidæ. This group contains two genera, of which both are Indian. Naja itself is represented by the famous Cobra (N. tripudians), a near relative of the Egyptian Haje (N. haje). Another hooded snake, Ophiophagus elaps, the only species of its genus, ranges from the Indian peninsula to New Guinea.

Of Indian Elapida without a hood the most noteworthy are the two species of Bungarus. B. cæruleus is the dreaded "Krait." The much larger B. fasciatus, a species marked by broad alternate transverse bands of black and yellow, is by no means so fatal in its effects. For the rest, excepting one or two doubtful snakes, the Elapidæ are represented on the Indian

continent by half-a-dozen species of the genus Callophis. These are small serpents, with sluggish movements and dull senses. They have short fangs. They feed on harmless snakes, the Calamariæ, which curiously resemble them in habit and physiognomy. The Callophides will not bite unless irritated. According to Dr. Fayrer "it is probable that a fatal result would not be produced by their bite in man. The poison is virulent, neverthelesss, and fowls bitten by some of the species succumbed in from one to three hours."

The seas around India swarm with Hydrophidæ, the number of which is about equal to that of the Thanatophidians on the adjacent continent. They are active snakes, and move very gracefully in their own element, seeking rather to escape from man than to attack him, which, however, they are ready to do when captured or irritated. In spite of their small size and relatively small fangs, they are extremely venomous. Dr. Fayrer was "informed by Mr. Galiffe that a fisherman bitten by a salt-water snake somewhere near the salt lakes, died in one hour and a quarter." Dr. Fayrer's own experiments and those of Mr. Stewart at Pooree prove, that not only when able to bite voluntarily, but even when weak and unable to bite, when the jaws were compressed on the animal, death resulted. The fishermen on the coast know their dangerous properties, and carefully avoid them."

66

From a practical point of view four of the terrestrial venomous snakes of India far exceed in importance their fellows. These four species are the Cobra, the Ophiophagus, the Krait, and the Tic-polonga. The name of the species causing death cannot, it is true, often be ascertained. It is, therefore, possible that we may underrate the venomous power of some snakes, especially of Bungarus fasciatus and of Echis. But the fact remains that whenever an Indian snake, which has killed a man by its bite, is secured and examined, it is found almost invariably to belong to one of the four species just mentioned.*

The Cobra and Ophiophagus are easily distinguished by their hood from the Krait, which shares with them the characters of the Elapida. All these differ from the Tic-polonga in having

one or two small solid teeth behind each fang,

two nasal shields,

smooth scales,

a rather small head, and

eyes with round pupils.

India, therefore, resembles Australia, and not Africa or tropical America, in that its most formidable venomous snakes are Elapids, together with a single characteristic species of viper.

It

The Cobra is the most celebrated of venomous snakes. deserves to occupy the post of honour among the lower animals. For man is the great persecutor of living creatures, and the cobra has killed more men than has any other animal, save man himself. Power gains respect, and we cannot therefore wonder that in some parts of India this terrible snake is superstitiously protected by the ignorant natives. It is the favourite of snake-charmers, because of its imposing aspect, and of the ease with which their skill enables them to handle it, even when not deprived of its fangs.

The Cobra "is by no means confined to the continent and Ceylon, being found in a number of the larger islands of the Archipelago. It extends eastwards to the Sutlej, and westwards to the Chinese island of Chusan. Singularly, it has never been observed by Mr. Hodgson in the valley of Nepal, but occurs in different parts of the Himalayas, reaching an altitude of 8,000 feet in Sikkim. It attains to a length of 5 feet,* feeding on small mammals and birds, on lizards, frogs, toads, and fishes; in order to obtain its prey it occasionally climbs trees or the roofs of huts; it is an expert swimmer, and is sometimes found at a considerable distance out at sea. It is more a nocturnal animal than a diurnal one, and ovoviviparous. Its chief enemies are the jungle fowl, which destroy the young brood, and the Herpestes or ichneumons, which will attack and master the largest Cobra: in districts where the Cobras or other venomous snakes have too much increased in number, the most efficient way of destroying them is to protect their natural enemies.

"The Cobra, the most common venomous snake of India, is so much an object of dread to the natives, of wonder to the Europeans, and of profit to the numerous itinerant snakecharmers, that it has become as celebrated an animal as its cousin, the Naja haje, which was a symbol of female divinities among the ancient Egyptians. Almost every writer on the natural productions of the East Indies has contributed to the natural history of this snake, which has been surrounded by such a number of evidently fabulous stories that their repetition and contradiction would fill a volume.

"This snake is frequently brought to Europe, and will live

* Dr. Günther, from whose great work on the Reptiles of British India (p. 340) the above extract is made, here speaks cautiously, within the limits of his own knowledge. His estimate of the Cobra's size is, however, too moderate. Dr. Fayrer mentions a living specimen "five feet eight inches long, including the tail, which measures eleven and a quarter inches. In girth it is six and a quarter inches. It is very powerful and fierce, and Dr. Beatson tells me that it killed a fowl in one minute. This is the largest Cobra I have seen, but I believe they attain even a greater size than this."

in captivity for years. Two may be well kept together; and it appears as if they felt some attachment for each other, for when they are excited by having food brought into their cage, or by some other incident, they will frequently fight each other, raising the anterior part of the body, spreading the hood, and darting as if to bite, but always carefully avoiding to wound. When, however, a third individual or any other snake is brought into the same cage, they attack and kill it. They feed more frequently at dusk and during the night than in the daytime; they drink often and much."

Floods cause the Cobra to shelter itself in villages, whereby its opportunities for mischief are much increased. Various returns made to the authorities amply attest that it far all other snakes in the number of its victims.

*

surpasses

The Cobra is very prone to variation. Nine of its principal varieties are figured in the first six coloured plates prefixed to Dr. Fayrer's recently published work on the Thanatophidia of India. These varieties may be referred to two sub-species distinguished by the natives as "Keautiah" and "Gokurrah," the former with an eye-like spot or simple band at the back of the hood, the latter with the well-known "spectacles," from which this snake is often named.

Ophiophagus elaps, the other hooded snake of India, sometimes known as the Hamadryad, is also variable, but not to such a degree as the Cobra. It too, as we have said, is widely distributed. Fortunately, it is not very abundant, for "it grows to the length of twelve or fourteen feet, and is not only very powerful, but also active and agressive." It injects a large quantity of venom, which "is less deadly in equal quantities than that of the Cobra." Its home is in hollow trees, where it preys on other snakes; whence its generic name. When young it closely resembless another species of tree-snake, the harmless Dipsas dendrophila.

The Hamadryad occasionally takes to the water. Its native name in Bengal is "Sunkerchor," or shell-breaker; in Orissa it is called "Ai ráj.”

Compared externally with the Cobra, it not only differs in colour, but "is longer in proportion to its size; it is, however,

* The drawings in this work were executed by native students at the School of Art in Calcutta, "most from life itself." They represent the Cobra, the Ophiophagus (two varieties), Bungarus (two species), Callophis (one species), the two Indian Viperidæ, eight species of Crotalidæ, and fourteen sea-snakes. Three other plates, not coloured, show the mode of holding the snake and the structure of the poison-apparatus. The most valuable portion of the work itself is its concluding section, which gives the results of Dr. Fayrer's own experiments, showing the effects of snake-poison on the lower animals, and the utter inutility of the native antidotes.

more graceful in its movements, and turns more rapidly. It is occasionally seen with the snake-charmers, who prize it highly as a show; but they say it is exceedingly dangerous to catch, and difficult to handle before its fangs are removed."

The Krait (Bungarus cæruleus), having a slender body and no hood, wears an aspect much less formidable than either the Cobra or Hamadryad. In length it reaches fifty-four inches. Three varieties are distinguished by Dr. Günther, none ranging beyond the Indian peninsula. This species is very common, "and next to the Cobra is the snake most destructive to human life." Its fangs are much smaller, "and its poison is not so rapid in its action, which circumstance, with the comparative smallness of the wound, gives greater hope of cure,” but such hope is not to be relied on.

*

Dr. Fayrer points out that the Krait "may be mistaken for Lycodon aulicus, an innocent snake, the colouring and general appearance being in many cases very similar. The least examination of the mouth would detect the difference, but at first sight they are much alike, and are often mistaken, the Lycodon suffering for its resemblance to its poisonous facsimile."

The Indian viper (Vipera Russellii), a hardy snake, fifty inches in length, is sometimes placed in a distinct genus, Daboia. Though without a hood, its physiognomy is more decidedly thanatophidian than that of the three preceding serpents, from which it is at once distinguished by its well defined relatively broader viperine head, unlike that of any non-venomous snake. The top of the head is covered with ordinary scales; the pupil is vertical; the large nostril lies between three shields; the body-scales are strongly keeled; similar scales cover the sides of the head. This dangerous snake is stoutly built, and its greyish-brown body is most beautifully dappled with large black, light-edged rings, calling to mind the spots of the jaguar. These markings are very variable. A common species, it abounds in Burmah, Southern India, and Ceylon. Dr. Fayrer says it is often caught in the Botanic Gardens near Calcutta. It has several local names; that of Tic-polonga, given to it in Ceylon, is the best known. Its prey consists of various small animals, and it is reported that it "often kills cattle, biting them when grazing." Though a terrestrial snake, "it will go into water." Dr. Russell believed the Indian viper to be as poisonous as the Cobra. The experiments of Dr. Fayrer incline him "to agree with Dr. Russell, and to give it, at all events, a place next to the

Dr. Fayrer does not tell us how this pleasant operation is to be performed.