department of technical and theoretical learning is given by professionals, and, where practicable, by men actually engaged in the particular vocations they teach. Paramount importance is naturally attached to industries peculiar to Lyon, such as various branches of the silk trade, but there are indeed few lines of wage-earning employment that are completely omitted. This is the more worthy of attention as the institutions in question are poor business investments from the standpoint of pecuniary return. In fact, many of the schools would be forced to close were it not for subsidies from the French Government, the local chamber of commerce, and the municipality, as well as gifts from successful graduates and other interested friends.

A local organization known as the Society for Professional Instruction, or in French Société d'Enseignement Professionnel, has united the various schools into what might be termed a large and loosely connected business university. This organization is partly municipal, and men of eminence are among its members of honor, beginning with the President of France. The number of students attending the courses of this society has ever since its foundation some 50 years ago averaged about 5,000, and, altogether, a quarter of a million students have received instruction. At present some 8,000 students are being instructed. Strikes tend to lower the attendance, though one might believe that during periods of idleness the workman would be willing to employ his time at these special schools. There are 84 courses for men, 83 for women, and 17 for men and women together. The average age of the students is 18, with a tendency ever since its foundation to decrease. A library of 6,400 volumes is at the disposal of the students and has branches in different parts of the city to facilitate distribution.

Considering the thoroughness of the instruction, the wide range of subjects, and the accessibility to the courses of study, it is extraordinary that the tuition fee for six months is only 3 francs ($0.579). Even this amount would not be required had the society not found that the attention and diligence of the student are enhanced by the payment of this minimum sum, thus eliminating any idea of charity. Men who are serving their term in the army are admitted at half this price. To aid these, as well as the others, who are nearly all wage earners during the day or students in other schools, the hours of instruction are from 7.30 to 10 p. m. and on Sunday mornings.

In stimulating class spirit and spurring the ambition of the individual students by considering their wants and aspirations before everything else, these schools are only equaled by the universities of the United States. Twenty students are sufficient to open a course, and of ali the courses offered very few are not given. By vote of the students a number of courses can be held over the summer when the schools are ordinarily closed. Last year 56 courses were thus prolonged.

The budget of the Société d'Enseignement Professionnel is interesting in many ways. The following figures are for 1911-12, the last year for which statistics have been issued:

An occasional deficit is balanced from an available reserve fund of 68,224.50 francs ($13,167.33). During the past year the expenses were higher than they have ever been before, the cause assigned being the increased cost of living. At an expenditure of about 18 francs ($3.47) per caput, a year's instruction in an average of three thoroughly well-conducted courses is given to 6,000 or 7,000 students. This is done by lowering as much as possible all general expenses, while fully paying the teachers for their work. Many of the rooms and houses in which the courses are held are lent to the society by the municipality and the public institutions in Lyon. In certain courses the students are taken through factories and allowed minute examination of all processes. The governmental aerodrome is open to those who take the course on aviation. Local automobile works are glad to demonstrate their various methods to students seeking mechanical instruction. The printing presses of the daily press of Lyon, as well as shoe factories, chocolate factories, textile mills, and many other industrial establishments, contribute largely to practical training. No better commendation of these schools can be asked than the fact that nearly every business man in Lyon has been an attendant himself or is connected directly or indirectly with the institution. For a few of these courses-weaving, tailoring, foreign languages, for example-an extra fee, in some cases as high as 15 francs ($2.90), is asked. The society is conducted by an administrative council and a president named by the council. This body is composed of 32 members and is elected in certain general assemblies at which the attendance of all the members of the society, as well as of the professors, is requested. Each year one of these assemblies elects one-fourth of the council, and the work to be done during the year is prescribed, financial matters gone over, and all necessary projects carefully discussed. In this manner an institution is managed to which Lyon owes much of its prestige as a commercial and manufacturing city..

Highly useful among other institutions in Lyon is the so-called Martinière, founded and endowed by Gen. Claude Martin over a century ago. Since then various contributions of 1,000 to 2,500,000 francs ($193 to $482,500) have swelled the original fund. The annual running expenses last published amounted to 265,479.64 francs ($51,237.57). Under the authority of the French Government this school is administered by a commission of seven members. The mayor of Lyon is the president, and the members are chosen by the municipal council and appointed by the minister of commerce. The institution comprises a school for boys and one for girls, respectively called School for the Sciences and Industrial Arts of Lyon and Professional and Housework School of Lyon. Both schools are gratuitous, though the books and other necessary supplies for instruction must be furnished by the students. The price for these ranges between 6 and 12 francs ($1.16 and $2.32) per annum. The School for Sciences and Industrial Arts has from 500 to 600 students. It may be termed a secondary technical school, giving instruction in many branches of industry and commerce. The complete course takes four years. After the third year the students are divided into two distinct sections, commercial or industrial. The examinations at the end of the fourth year take place before a special jury. Diplomas of first and second class are given to the higher-grade students on leaving; the first-class diplomas of the indus

trial section qualify holders for the admission examinations to the National Schools of Arts and Professions. The administration of the school and the director are active in obtaining situations for graduating students. The school year begins in October and lasts to the 14th of July. No one is admitted during the year or allowed to make two years of study in one year, except in special cases after absence on account of sickness, and only when sanctioned by the administrative council. A limited number of students whose parents so desire may take a fifth year of instruction, with permission of the directors. Students must be children of parents who are both French. Successful candidates are admitted directly into one of the four-year courses, according to the grade reached in the examinations, which are given twice a year, June and September, with permission, in case of failure in the first, to try again in the later examination. A gratuitous and voluntary course, preparatory for the examinations, is given in the summer months. Application for admission must be made by parents or their representatives.

There has been an average attendance of 300 students in the Professional and Housework School. The complete courses take three years, and students are only admitted after an examination. The general housework instruction is given to all students, but the professional teaching differs according to the classes. In the morning the students of the same year work together in the courses of general instruction. In the afternoon the sections are separated and put into a regular workshop, made to follow as nearly as possible actual conditions of the vocation chosen. There are three sections of professional instruction: Commerce, dressmaking and sewing, and embroidery. On entrance, students are asked to select one of these three branches. No one is allowed to pursue one of the general courses without at the same time attending one of the three sections of practical instruction. Upon completion of the third year the students are given diplomas, first and second class. Care is taken to secure good positions for successful graduates.

A colonial instruction school has been organized by the chamber of commerce and most of the courses are given in the commerce building. The object is to instruct students in all things absolutely necessary to life in French possessions over seas. After two years of attentive study, money prizes are awarded, which enable meritorious students to make trips to the colonies themselves. The chamber pledges itself to give such employment as it disposes of in the colonies. The candidates must pass a rigid entrance examination to attend these courses and a similarly searching examination on leaving. The entrance fee is returned to these students. A second group of students is authorized to take lessons in modern languages not given in the colonial course, such as English, Spanish, and Italian, at an outside school of languages, free of cost. Students under 16 are not admitted. Another group admitted without examination, but required to take at least two courses, have a right to a "certificate of assiduity" and to the free lessons at the language school, in case the first group does not take all the vacancies. The sum of 5 francs ($0.965) is asked as an entrance fee. Provision is made for a third group, "free listeners." The courses are nearly all held at night. They include tropical hygiene, history and geography of the colonies, Chinese (first year), Chinese (second year), sericulture, economics and legislation, manners and customs of the Far East, Arabic (first year), and Arabic (second year). It is in the colonial school that many of the future employees of the Government are prepared, and instruction in such subjects as sericulture tends to spread Lyon's home industry in silk to the colonies. This institution, of comparatively recent origin, is becoming more generally known, and is increasing steadily in numbers and importance, as the inducements to enter are more attractive every year.

The Superior School of Commerce at Lyon ranks high among the business schools of France. It is assisted by the municipality, the chamber of commerce, and local organizations. It is divided into two sections: (1) General commerce and banking, and (2) silk weaving and other textile industries. As this gives a very thorough busi

ness instruction, the price of tuition is high, but does not exceed 910 francs ($175.63) a year. Students are taken as boarders at the price of 130 to 150 francs ($25.09 to $28.95) a month. The minimum age is 16. Foreign students are admitted at higher rates. To obtain a graduation certificate, an examination after a two years' course is necessary in the banking division, but not in silk weaving. Prizes, some as high as 2,500 francs ($482.50), are granted, for purposes of travel, to those who have shown themselves particularly deserving. Among the administrative careers it may be noted that half of the vacant places for vice consuls of France are open to graduates of the Superior Schools of Commerce. Employment is given in the administration bureaus of the ministries of commerce and labor, of finance, and of the colonies, and in other special governmental work. It also prepares for the examinations of the Bank of France and the Credit Foncier, and the commercial sections of mines and railways. The school takes great care in finding employment for its graduates, in which it is helped by the old graduates. In its entirely separate weaving department no admission examination is required. Theoretical and practical instruction is given to those who desire to belong to the silk, cotton, or linen industry in any of its branches. Here, as in all the other departments of this institution, most of the hours of the morning and of the afternoon are taken up with study. Weaving rooms with electric looms, a filature, and room for hand weaving are supplied among other aids to instruction. Students may choose from two lines of instruction; one is very complete, taking two years, comprising, outside of the theory and practice of weaving, useful accessory courses; the other requires only one year's study, but covers only the theory and practice of weaving.

An important addition to the facilities for commercial education offered by the city of Lyon was made last year when the University of Lyon, with the assistance of the chamber of commerce, established the Lyonnaise Institute of Economic and Political Sciences. The education given by the university has been largely shaped, up to the present time, to fit the needs of those studying for a professional career, and none of the courses in the university proper was deemed by its authorities to be of a sufficiently broad and general character to adapt itself to the different administrative, industrial, commercial, and financial careers open to the young man who wished to enter banking, insurance, the consular service, or political life. The Lyonnaise Institute of Economic and Political Sciences affords a short and complete commercial education. Students may take the required two years' course in the institute at the same time that they follow the regular university courses, if they so desire. It is not necessary, however, to be a student at the university or to have any certificates or diplomas in order to enter this commercial school. The institute is organized in two sections, economic and political, respectively, both of which are of two years' duration. Diplomas are given to those who are successful in passing the required examinations. The total cost of either course of this special practical training amounts to 380 francs ($73.34). A general idea of the studies covered by this institution may be had from the following subjects treated: Political economy; financial, industrial, and commercial law; economic and colonial geography; hygiene; diplomatic usage and modern history; international law; practical studies in accounting, banking, insurance, and the diplomatic and consular careers. To these may also be added the study of foreign languages. The courses are open to those coming from abroad as well as to French students.

A progressive spirit in public and private enterprise is everywhere manifest in Lyon in affording the best facilities for livelihood-producing education. The response shown by the students in attendance and application, whether in the day or night schools, in taking advantage of the exceptional opportunities is prompt and sure. The combined efforts of donors, teachers, and pupils have accordingly given results in the upward swing of local commerce and trade that may well command serious consideration.

SWITZERLAND.

INTRODUCTION.

Public education in Switzerland, as regards its administration and its operations, has been fully described in recent publications of this office. It will suffice to recall here that it is provided for by cantonal systems developed in accordance with a clause of the federal constitution which requires every one of the 25 Cantons "to provide sufficient elementary education" free to all children without prejudice to "freedom of faith and conscience." With this restriction, every Canton has entire management of its schools. This independence is indicated by the varied organization of the several systems, some of which reflect French influences; others, German and Italian influences; but in all there is evident a common purpose, namely, to develop every order of ability among the people and to afford adequate preparation for every calling, professional or industrial, that may be exercised in the Republic.

The independent control of education thus guaranteed is jealously guarded by the local governments; at the same time the need of federal aid in this work has been recognized, and in 1902 an amendment to the constitution was authorized by popular vote which established the obligation of the Federal Government to subsidize primary schools. The right of cantonal control was reaffirmed in the amendment. The amount of the federal subsidy is fixed at the uniform rate of 60 centimes (12 cents) per capita of the population, excepting in eight Cantons, in which, by reason of special difficulties, the rate is increased by 20 centimes (4 cents). This subsidy, which in 1913 amounted to 2,000,000 francs ($386,000), has aided greatly in equalizing the school provision of the country.

The military system adopted in 1875 provided for recruit examinations, and these have fostered education by exciting keen rivalry among the Cantons in respect to the success of their youth in the tests.

THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE.

The Polytechnic Institute at Zurich is the only federal institution in the Republic. It is one of the most important and highly equipped schools of that order in the world, and no expense is spared to keep its equipment fully up to date. In standards it is of the same grade as the universities, and a candidate for admission must have the certificat de maturité, that is, a diploma of a Swiss middle school, or submit to an examination. Students who do not desire to follow a prescribed course leading to the final certificate are admitted as

1 Reports of the Commissioner of Education, 1908, Vol. I, ch. 8, pp. 275-281; 1912, Vol. I, ch. 20, pp. 535–538; 1913, Vol. I, ch. 35, pp. 808-811; Bulletin, 1913, No. 56, Some Suggestive Features of the Swiss School System.