pathian Mountains are the Lomnitzer Spitze, 8545 feet; the great Krywan, 8218; the Caesmark 8194; and the Uinacke 7597 feet above the level of the sea. The loftiest of the Carinthian range is the Terklou, elevated to 10,485 feet. To the eastward of this extend the Norischen and Rhetian Alps, the highest of whose summits within the Austrian dominions reaches the height of 14,814 feet. The greatest expanse of level land in Hungary is to the eastward of the Theisa, forming a rich plain of 20,000 square miles. Another level, called the Three Cornered Plain, is to the eastward of the Danube, beginning near Presburgh; its base line extends 150 miles in length.

First amongst the rivers of Hungary, though it has its source out of the kingdom, is the noble Danube; and next may be ranked the Drave, the Marosch, the March, the White Koresch, and the Izamos. In the Carpathian range originate the Theyss, the Waag, the Gran, the Poprace, and the Temes, which all fall into the Danube. The principal lakes are Balaton and Nieusiedl, west; Palitsch on the south-west, and Grunsee or the Gun lake among the Carpathians. There are also several extensive marshes here, as that of the Isle of Schut on the west, and that of Saxetje on the east of the kingdom. A great part of the county of Torontal on the frontier of the Bannat is composed of marshes, overflowed by the Danube and its tributaries.

The climate among the mountains is of course bleak; but in the south it is in general mild; in the sandy districts extremely hot; on the banks of the rivers and near the marshes there

is much humidity: indeed it is a prevailing characteristic of the climate of the level part of Hungary. After the hottest days of summer, a copious and chilling dew falls. Rain is not, however, very frequent in the plains, through the prevalence of high winds. On the other hand, rain and hail occur frequently in the mountainous provinces. Except in the Bannat and other marshy parts, the inhabitants are healthy; but here agues and inflammatory diseases are frequent, and in some places the plica of Poland appears.

the county of Marmarosch are sometimes found small crystals of great beauty. A more substantial description of mineral wealth consists in salt mines, which are abundant in Hungary, particularly in the counties of Saros and Marmarosch; and which belong exclusively to the government.

The soil of Hungary varies with its remarkable diversities of elevation. The mountains, aud many tracts amongst them, are dry, sterile, and sandy, often exhibiting neither living creature, shrub, nor tree, for many miles; yet terraces bordering on them have fine pasturage; and the plains are of luxurious vegetation.

In the north, clay, stone, and gravel, prevail : and the ground produces at best but a scanty return for labor. In the south there are also many tracks unfit for agriculture. The extensive heaths of Debreczin and Ketszkemet are covered either with sand or the most scanty vegetation, and several other tracks are moving sands. To the north, corn is not produced in a sufficient quantity for the consumption of the inhabitants, and barley, common rye, and ikritza (a productive species of rye from Moravia), are most frequently sown; in the south, wheat, maize, millet, and, in the marshes of the Bannat, rice. From the south, wheat is exported in considerable quantity. Oats are cultivated throughout the kingdom. Potatoes are also raised by the Sclavonians and Germans, and pulse by the followers of the Greek church. Hemp, flax, tobacco, and saffron, are also cultivated. The climate is favorable to various kinds of fruit, but its culture is very little attended to. Agriculture indeed throughout Hungary is in an extremely backward state. The ground is ill-ploughed and ill-sown; a bundle of sticks or branches serve for the harrow, and the roller is unknown. Enclosure, drainage, and the irrigation of meadows, are also scarcely thought of here. When it is necessary to store corn, a hole, of sufficient width to admit a man, and to let it down, is dug to a certain depth, and the ground is then scooped out, so as to form a cavern of some size. When damp is apprehended, the bottom and sides are covered with straw, after which the corn is put in, and the neck, or opening, filled with earth. The north of Hungary, on the whole, though mountainous, is better cultivated than the fertile tracks in the south.

some piaces are immense woods of plum-trees: the inhabitants distil from the fruit a liquor called slivavicza.

Grellman makes the extent of land in Hungary 39,329,000 jochs, which are nearly equal to an English acre. Of this 23,905,126 jochs only are in cultivation; the remainder is sandy deserts, lakes, morasses, or mountains. The productive lands are thus divided :-4,897,218 arable, 638,767 gardens, 911,176 vineyards, 2,129,225 meadows, 5,536,000 pastures, 850,000 ponds, and 8,940,740 woods.

Breeding cattle is a very important branch of the rural economy. The horses are active and hardy, but small, and inferior to those of most other parts of the Austrian empire. They have, however, improved of late years. The whole number of them does not exceed 480,000. The horned cattle are much valued in other countries. The steppes between Debretzen, Temeswar, Neusatz, and Pest, are their native homes, and here their number has been taken at 886,900 oxen, and 1,508,100 cows, which, by sale to the surrounding countries, have produced annually nearly £500,000 sterling. The sheep are stated to be upwards of 8,000,000. There are prodigious flocks between the Darube and the Theisa. The wool is coarse, and the owners reckon on the cheese, milk, and flesh, more than the fleeces. In Western Hungary the flocks have been much improved of late years, by crosses with the Merino and the sheep of Padua. Wool to the value of £500,000 is here exported. Swine are reared in abundance; there are yearly from 200,000 to 250,000 exported. Goose feathers are also largely exported by the Jews; and in the Bannat, where the mulberry-tree flourishes, the breeding of silk-worms has been a good deal attended to of late.

Hungary is not a manufacturing country, such occupations being greatly disdained, and except for the preparation, in the first stage, of its minerals, tobacco, or potash, or such articles as essential oils from the resinous trees, or leather from the hide, there are very few establishments worth notice. At Sassin, in the north-west, is a cotton manufacture, which in 1800 gave employment to 20,000 persons; but is now in a neglected state; and at Caschau, in the north, there is a manufacture of coarse cloth; but the only place where fine cloth is prepared is Oedenburg. In the large towns indeed there are workmen in various departments, but few establishments of any importance, and manufactured goods are therefore imported in large quantities, from the other Austrian states. The commerce of the country is fettered by no internal taxes, a circumstance of which the Hungarians are very proud, but the Austrian government has environed it with custom houses, where a duty of 14 per cent. is gathered on all goods that pass into it from the other Austrian states. We may thus see that the encouragement of manufactures within the kingdom, will never, voluntarily, become the policy of that government. The external commerce of Hungary is carried on principally with Silesia, Poland, and the North of Italy: the first two drawing their wine, and the latter large supplies of corn from hence. Fiume is the only good port of the kingdom: while the central

point of all its commerce is Pest, which has four great fairs annually that regulate in a great degree the prices for the year throughout the kingdom. Other places which have considerable trade are Presburg, Raab, Koman, and Oedenburg toward the German dominions of Austria; Kaschau, Eperies, and Leutschau towards Galicia; Debreczin, Ezegedin, and Temeswar toward Moldavia and Wallachia; and Semlin and Neutsatz toward Turkey.

The nobles, though differing in titles and rank, have all equal privileges; that is, the Magnates having personally a seat and vote in the diet; and the other nobles their representatives. The higher clergy are considered as nobles; and the nobility alone can possess free lands, or those enjoying the jus dominale, and they are exempt from taxes, tithes, and the quartering of soldiers; but, on the other hand, they are bound to perform personal military service, when the diet decrees the levy en masse.

The citizens, or burghers, are the inhabitants of those cities which own no superior lord under the monarch. They have similar privileges to the nobility, by which they are exempted from taxes and tithes, and from the quarterings of the military; and their deputies have seats in the diet. They are also governed by their own magistrates. They cannot, however, hold estates out of their cities, nor institute a suit against the nobles, except in the name of the corporation to which they belong.

The peasants are slaves generally, with a greater or less degree of servitude; but some few are qualified colonists, and free. The lot of this class has been of late years much improved. They are allowed to acquire property, to leave their estates to their heirs, and to become burghers, if they can do so. They are still, however, incapable of commencing suits against either the nobility or burghers. The majority of the Hungarians are Catholics, but other sects are established upon nearly an equality, and have their independent revenues and discipline. In 1805 the Catholics, including the Greek church and Armenians who had united with them, were 4,647,832. The independent Greek church were 1,161,138; the Calvinists, or Reformed, 1,002,490; the Lutherans 624,776; and the Jews 75,128 in number. The Catholic clergy consist of three archbishops, seventeen diocesan and nineteen titular bishops; besides abbots, priors, &c. The Greek church has one archbishop, seven bishops, eighteen deans, several abbots, and nearly 3000 priests. The Reformed have, in four superintendencies, 1300 ministers; and the Lutherans, in four superintendencies, 480 pastors. Each of the sects have their separate institutions, also, for educating those of their confession. The Catholics one university, five academies, one lyceum, two philosophical institutes, fifty-five gymnasia, six grammarschools, and nine schools for preparing teachers for the villages, whose number is 2690. The Greeks in union with the Catholics have 380 schools, and the same number of teachers The independent Greeks 1230 schools, and two gymnasia. The reformed three colleges, six gymnasia, and 1600 schools. The Lutherans one lyceum, one college, ten gymnasia, and 630 schools.

The constitution of Ilungary is a mixed monarchy, in which the king, as the great executive magistrate, has ample prerogatives. He appoints to all the archbishoprics, bishoprics, and high ecclesiastical offices of the Catholic church, without any interference of the pope, though these dignitaries do not enter on their functions till confirmed in them at Rome. They cannot bequeath their property without the royal consent; and, if they die intestate, the crown is heir. The king has the farther power of suppressing monasteries, or religious orders, entirely. He is also regarded as the protector of the Protestants in their privileges. The executive government is administered by the Vienna chancery, in connexion with the statthaiterey, or council of state, at Buda; and subordinate to it are the comitatus, or county meetings, held under a lord lieutenant. The great officers of state are, 1. The palatine, who is nominated by the diet out of four candidates proposed by the king, and whose office is for life; his powers as protector of the throne during a minority, and as occasional mediator between the king and the diet, are very great. 2. The locum tenens regius, or viceroy, who is now frequently the same person as the palatine. 3. The judex curia regiæ, a law officer of great influence. 4. The bannus, or governor of Croatia, Sclavonia, and Dalmatia. 5. The tavernicus, formerly director of the royal revenue, but now president of the sedes tavernicalis, or court of exchequer. These, and the inferior officers of state, such as the chamberlains, &c., are called barons of the kingdom, and they rank among the maginates.

The revenue is derived from the regalia, enjoyed by the crown in its own right, and the contributions or taxes granted by the diet. The regalia are, the crown lands; a monopoly of salt; the coinage; mines; tolls on imports and exports; fines and penalties; the income of the vacant bishoprics; the taxes paid by the Jews and the free towns; 5 per cent. on the salaries of certain pensions of office; the contributions of bishoprics and abbeys towards repairing of fortresses; the post-office; the lotteries; monti di pieta; and some others. The taxes voted periodically by the diet are on cattle, land, trades, the poll-tax, &c. For the collection of these, the country is divided into 621 opforten, or petty districts; and the produce of this part of the revenue is about £500,000; its total produce between £3,000,000 and £4,000,000 sterling, or nearly one-third of the whole revenue of the Austrian empire.

The military force of Hungary has also always been very important to the empire: it consists of twelve regiments of infantry of 3857 men each, and ten complete hussar regiments of 1698 men each, making together 63,364 regulars, recruited from time to time among the peasantry, and much increased in time of war, or when what is termed the insurrectio is called forth. In 1797 this irregular force was 18,000 cavalry and 35,000 infantry; in 1800 it was 11,000 horse and 26,000 foot; and in 1809, when the national spirit was fully roused, 18,000 horse and 21,000 foot. On the boundaries of the Turkish empire is a military colony which hold the lands they cultivate upon the terms of being

always ready for active service when a war breaks out with that power. They are all regi mented, and have been drilled.

Though Hungary has a language of its own, it is not generally spoken, nor supposed to be understood by more than one-third of the people. Until within a very late period the only written language was Latin, and it is still the most common medium of communication. But when Maria Theresa formed her Hungarian guards, a number of young men of noble families were drawn to Vienna, and taught to feel the inferiority of their native country in not possessing a national literature. This stimulated them to the cultivation of the vernacular tongue, which was further promoted by the attempt of the emperor Joseph to introduce the German into their public transactions; and since that period the study of this language has produced some good poets and miscellaneous writers.

From the period of the settlement of the Magyars in this country, in the ninth century, we find it for a length of time governed by a duke, the elected head of various independent principalities. One of the last of these dukes was Geysa: who, becoming a proselyte to Christianity, was baptised; after which he resigned the government to his son Stephen, who took the title of king, A. D. 1000. The disposal of the crown was now disputed between the Turkish and German emperors for nearly 200 years: bu after 1527, when Ferdinand, archduke of Austria, was advanced to the throne, the Austrians found means to influence the elections in such a manner, as to keep the crown in their family till 1687. when it was settled hereditarily on their heirsmale; and now, in consequence of an act of the diet of Presburg in 1723, in case of the failure of heirs-male, it is to descend to feniales.

The present division of the kingdom into counties was introduced by Bela III., who died in 1196. His son Andrew II., infected with the rage of the crusades, allowed the nobles to deprive him of a considerable part of his prerogative; and the privileges which they thus obtained were incorporated under his successor, in 1222, into what is called the Golden Bull. Mary, grand-daughter of Bela IV., having married a prince of the royal family of France, the house of Anjou derived from her their claims to the crown of Hungary. Accordingly, a brother of Louis IX. of France, named Charles, was crowned king of Hungary in 1310, and raised that country to its highest splendor. Having married a sister of Casimir, king of Poland, one of his sons succeeded to that crown; but the successors of this great prince were far inferior to him in talent: and for a century the history of Hungary presents little else than a series of disturbances. At last the archduke of Austria, having married the only daughter of king Sigismund, succeeded to the crown in 1437; and the house of Austria has ever since reigned in Hungary.

Of the manners and customs of this interesting people we cannot present a more faithful summary than from the pen of Dr. Bright.

The Hungarians, according to this writer, exhibit the martial spirit of their Sclavonian ances tors, and are, in all the ranks above the peasantry, very jealous of their peculiar privileges

They are tall and well made; and fond of athletic exercises. The dress of the higher classes consists generally of a fur cap, a close coat, girded with a sash, and covered with a mantle or cloak; this gives them an air of dignity, while the practice of not shaving the upper lip adds to it a sort of military effect. The females are in general handsome, and dress in dark colors with long sleeves.

The peasant appears in general void of all stimulus to invention, all excitement to extraordinary exertion. No one has proceeded in the arts of life and civilisation a step farther than his neighbour. When you have seen one you bave seen all. From the same little hat covered with straw, falls the same matted long black hair, negligently plaited, or tied in knots; and over the same dirty jacket and trowsers is wrapped on each a cloak of coarse woollen cloth, or sheepskin, still retaining its wool. Whether it be winter or summer, week-day or sabbath, the Sclavonian of this district never lays aside his cloak, or is seen but in heavy boots. Their instruments of agriculture are throughout the same, and in all their habitations is observed a perfect uniformity of design. A wide muddy road separates two rows of cottages, which constitute a village. From amongst them there is no possibility of selecting the best or the worst; they are absolutely uniform. In some villages the cottages present their ends, in others their sides, to the road; but there is seldom this variety in the same village. The interior of the cottage is generally divided into three small rooms on the ground floor, and a little space in the roof destined for lumber. The roof is commonly covered with a very thick thatch, the walls are whitewashed, and pierced towards the road by two small windows. The cottages are usually placed a few yards distant from each other. The intervening space defended by a rail and gate, or a hedge of wickerwork towards the road, forms the farm-yard, which runs back some way, and contains a shed or out-house for the cattle. Such is the outward appearance of the peasant and

his habitation.'

The Austrian government has, as we have stated, mitigated the lot of the peasants in some degree: this good work was commenced by Maria Theresa, who fixed the quantity of land upon each estate (called a session) which a peasant should possess, and the services he should render his lord in return. The peasants are not absolutely fixed to the soil, but may be dismissed if the superior finds cause; nor does the son always succeed the father, though this is usual; nor has the peasant any absolute claim to a whole session, but, if one-half or one third is awarded to him by the lord, only that proportion of the stipulated service can be required.

The services required of the father of a family, for the whole session, are 104 days of labor during the year, if he work without cattle, or fifty-two days if he bring two horses or oxen, or four, if necessary, with ploughs and carts. In this work he may either employ himself, or, if he prefer and can afford it, may send a servant. Besides this, he must give four fowls and twelve eggs, and one pfund and a half of butter; and every thirty peasants must give one calf yearly.

He must also pay a florin for his house-must cut and bring home a klafter of wood-must spin in the family six pfund of wool or hemp, provided by the landlord-and, among four pea sants, the proprietor claims what is called a long journey, that is, they must transport twenty centners, each 100 lbs. French weight, the distance of two days' journey out and home; and, besides all this, they must pay one-tenth of all their products to the church, and one-ninth to the lord.

Dr. Bright gives the following description of the interior of a Hungarian cottage:-'The door opens in the side of the house into the middle room or kitchen, in which is an oven constructed of clay, well calculated for baking bread, and various implements for household purposes, which generally occupy this apartment fully. On each side of the room is a door, communicating on one hand with the family dormitory, in which are the two windows that look into the road. This chamber is usually small, but well arranged; the beds in good order, piled upon each other to be spread out on the floor at night, and the walls covered with a multiplicity of pictures and images of our Saviour, together with dishes, plates, and vessels of coarse earthenware. The other door from the kitchen leads to the store-room, the repository of a great part of the peasant's riches, consisting of bags of grain, of various kinds, both for consumption and for seed, bladders of tallow, sausages, and other articles of provision, in quantities which would astonish us to find in an English cottage. We must, however, keep in mind, that the harvest of the Hungarian peasant anticipates the income of the whole year; and, from the circumstances in which he is placed, he should rather be compared with our farmer than our laborer. The yards or folds between the houses are usually much neglected, and are the dirty receptacles of a thousand uncleanly objects. Light carts and ploughs, with which the owner performs his stated labor, his meagre cattle, a loose rudely formed heap of hay, and half a dozen ragged children, stand there in mixed confusion, over which three or four noble dogs, of a peculiar breed, resembling in some degree the Newfoundland dog, keep faithful watch.'

For the following delineation of the people assembled at a Hungarian fair, by a native writer, we are indebted to the industry of Mr. Myers, and his valuable Geography :

The manner in which the Hungarian peasant conducts himself in the sale of his produce, is, when compared to that of the Sclavonian, the German, and the Jew, with whom he is surrounded, remarkable and interesting. The Sclavonian enlarges on the excellence and cheapness of his ware, with palpable and suspicious eagerness. The German dresses out his merchandise, turns it from one side to the other, and presents himself to the purchasers with a commanding self-sufficiency The Jew swears with heart and soul that he will injure no man-and the Raitzer is stern, silent, and unaccommodating; but, on that account, his characteristic and fiery eye pleads with the greater eloquence. The Hungarian alone keeps himself perfectly passive in his dealings. He allows his goods to be inspected answers shortly and directly to the