Sword, When Valmond came to Pontiac, The Seats of the Mighty (a historical novel, dealing with Wolfe and the siege of Quebec), The Pomp of the Lavillettes, The Lane that had no Turning, and The Right of Way. The scene of The Battle of the Strong (1898) is laid in Jersey, and that of Donovan Pasha (1902) in Egypt; but neither of these ap

pealed so strongly as his Canadian stories even to non-Canadian readers. In his historical work on Old Quebec (1903) he had the help of a collaborator. Sir Gilbert had been settled in England for some years when in 1900 he was elected M.P. for Gravesend, as a Conservative; he was knighted in 1902.

HE great southern island-continent we call Australia begins to take shape on French and German maps in the first half of the sixteenth century. The Portuguese may have seen Australian coasts by the middle of that century. But it is not till the beginning of the seventeenth that we know of Dutch ships actually in these waters; and by their enterprise the Dutch earned in that century the right to bestow their long-current names on New Holland and Van Diemen's Land. And Tasman invented the Dutch-Latin name Nova Zeelanda when he discovered the islands in 1642, but slightly (and not quite correctly) Anglicised when in 1840 New Zealand became definitively a British colony. The name Australia, of happy omen, dates only from the Voyage to Terra Australis published by Matthew Flinders in 1814. It was Cook's voyages in 1770 and later that made parts of Australia and New Zealand really well known to Europeans; and the first period of European settlement, associated with British penal stations, began in 1788. The interior of Australia was wholly unknown till after 1813. The discovery of gold in 1851 brought a flood of fresh blood and adventurous energy into the settlements; but it was the slower and soberer pastoral and agricultural colonisation that by 1901 had permanently secured wealth and well-being for the five Australian colonies, which, with Tasmania, in that year entered on a new epoch as the Commonwealth of Australia. At the inauguration of the Commonwealth its population (3,775,000, fully two-thirds native born) was less than that of the English county of Lancashire or of London, and was excelled by that of four several States of the American Union at the same date. But it was considerably more than the total white population of the thirteen United States at the first census in 1790 (3,172,000). New Zealand, with its white population of nearly 790,000, has all the elements of another great and prosperous state of English blood and speech.

To all the colonies the settlers, or a proportion of them, brought their love of the home literature, and erelong one and another began to write songs and stories in imitation of the poets of the mothercountry and of America; Poe's influence has been traced as well as that of Wordsworth and Byron, of Tennyson and Browning. Among the first were

Barron Field, a judge of the Supreme Court in New South Wales, who as early as 1819 published a volume of poems, The Firstfruits of Australian Poetry, reviewed by Charles Lamb in the Examiner; W. C. Wentworth; and the statesman Sir Henry Parkes. Some of what R. H. Horne wrote was inspired by his Australian experiences (page 413). Alfred Domett's principal poem was the Maori epic named below. Charles Harpur (1812-68) was even called 'the Australian Wordsworth.' Lionel Michael attracted notice in 1857 by his Songs without Music. By far the greater part of Australian literature has been the work of men born and bred in Great Britain. Henry Clarence Kendall was the first Australian-born writer to secure a permanent place in the affections of Australians. But even now Adam Lindsay Gordon's verse is oftenest on Australian lips and Gordon came from the old country. Kendall and Lindsay Gordon began a new and more important stage in Australian literature. J. Brunton Stephens, a Scotsman, became the Queensland poet.' But the most characteristically Australian native-born poets are the so-called 'Bulletin School,' whose gifts have been developed in and by the Sydney BulletinJohn Farrell, author of How he Died (1895); A. B. Paterson, author of The Man from Snowy River (1895); Edward Dyson, author of Rhymes from the Mines (1896); and Henry Lawson, author of While the Billy Boils, in prose, and In the Days when the World was Wide, in verse (1896). Mr Lawson, whose rough and swinging verses denounce with vehemence the vices of civilisation and glorify the 'good old days,' has been described as the most representative writer Australia has yet produced.

Of novels dealing with Australian subjects, probably the most important as literature have been written by two great English novelists, one of whom never even saw Australia, while the other was but for a few years a colonist. In It's Never too Late to Mend, Charles Reade (see page 482 carefully followed his documents; but Henry Kingsley's descriptions of bush-life and of the pioneer settlers in Geoffrey Hamlyn and The Hillyars and the Burtons (see page 513) are singularly vivid and true and attractive. Much of R. L. Stevenson's later work was produced under the Southern Cross, and is racy of the Southern Sea if not of Australasia. Marcus

Clarke is on the whole the most conspicuous prose writer of those who may fairly be called Australians though European born. 'Rolf Boldrewood' has been called the 'national novelist of Australia.' Ada Cambridge and 'Tasma,' both English born, and Mrs Campbell Praed, a colonial, are the most eminent women writers; though Mary Gaunt (Mrs Lindsay Miller) has also done good work in short stories and longer novels. 'George Egerton,' Australian born, is cosmopolitan in his works. Guy Boothby, born in Adelaide in 1867, the son of a member of the South Australian House of Assembly, has produced a score of stories, of which On the Wallaby (1894) and Billy Binks are sufficiently Australian in subject. But domiciled in England, he is rather identified with his most notable book, Dr Nikola, and its continuations. Louis Becke, born in Port Macquarie, New South Wales, in 1848, has stuck more exclusively to Southern subjects, and utilised in his stories his experiences as a supercargo on shipboard amongst the South Sea Islands and as an Australian journalist. Some of his work he has done in collaboration with Walter Jeffery, who, born in Portsmouth in 1861, went to sea, and in 1886 settled in Sydney, where in 1891 he became editor of a paper. Joseph Jacobs, born in Sydney in 1854, was educated partly there and partly at Cambridge, and has become a first-rate authority on the medieval history of the Jews (his own people) and on fairy tales. James Francis Hogan, author, journalist, and M.P., was born in Tipperary in 1855, and was in infancy taken by his parents to Melbourne, where he was educated, and whence he returned in 1887. William Henry Fitchett, born in 1850, and educated at Melbourne University for the Methodist ministry, has written popular and patriotic books on British heroic history. Charles Haddon Chambers, journalist, story-writer, and dramatic author, was born at Stanmore near Sydney in 1860, and had been stock-rider and Civil servant ere in 1882 he settled in England. Ernest William Hornung, novelist and journalist, born at Middlesbrough in 1866, found two years in Australia enough to provide him with materials for several Australian stories. Equally short was the sojourn in Australia of Hume Nisbet, who, born in Stirling, has given a highly Australian colouring to several of his half-hundred novels and stories. Fergus Hume, on the other hand, though British born, was educated in Dunedin, and had been a barrister in New Zealand before, in 1887, he sprung on English readers The Mystery of a Hansom Cab, Madam Midas, and the rest of his stories, whose interest hardly lies in their literary merits. Henry Brereton Marriott Watson, born in 1863 near Melbourne, was educated at Christchurch, and in 1885 came from New Zealand to begin literary work in England.

In the Australian novel the four main aspects of colonial life have been all duly chronicled-the convict period, the pastoral development, the

gold exploitation, and the triumphant democracy of industry and labour.

Records of explorations, lives of explorers, and histories of the colonies form another large section of the literary output: of Australasian historians Mr G. W. Rusden is perhaps the most comprehensive and voluminous. A disproportionate amount of talent and energy is absorbed in journalism; and it should be added that many of the daily papers and the magazines of Australia are very ably written. F. W. L. Adams (1862–93) made some stir in Australia both by his verse and prose while on the staff of the Sydney Bulletin, wrote novels of Australian life and criticisms of things Australian, but is best known for an autobiographical novel, Leicester. Born in Malta, an army doctor's son, he shot himself at Margate, already doomed to death by lung disease. Charles Henry Pearson (1830-94), author of National Life and Character, spent twenty years in Australia, sat in the colonial parliament, and in 1886-90 was Victorian Minister of Education. Sir Charles Gavan Duffy (page 583) may also here be named. Samuel Butler's Erewhon (page 624) seems to have taken shape in New Zealand.

In New Zealand as in Australia, literary impulses have mainly found vent in journalism. There are many books on the country, its geology, ornithology, and history. Probably those which most distinctly deserve to rank as literature are Manning's Old New Zealand (1865), a description of Maori life by an Englishman who married a Maori wife and became a naturalised Maori; he has been for his humour called the 'Charles Lever of New Zealand.' And The Long White Cloud (1898), so called by its author, Mr W. P. Reeves, a colonial, from the poetical Maori name for the colony, is admirably written throughout.

See Douglas Sladen, Australian Poets (1888) and Australian Ballads and Rhymes (1888), anthologies; Desmond Byrne, Australian Writers (on seven authors; 1896); Turner and Sutherland, The Development of Australian Literature (New York, 1898); A. Patchett Martin, Beginnings of an Australian Literature (1898); and the relevant chapter in Percy F. Rowland's The New Nation (1903).

Adam Lindsay Gordon, born at Fayal in the Azores in 1833, was the son of a retired armycaptain of Scottish family, who latterly taught Hindustani at Cheltenham College. Meant also to be a soldier, Adam was sent to school at Cheltenham and to Woolwich, and kept several terms at Merton College, Oxford. But already an inordinate passion for horsemanship and openair sports overbore all other interests, and led him into various irregularities. At twenty he sailed to Adelaide, and was successively policetrooper, horse-breaker, and livery-stable keeper, becoming withal the best gentleman steeplechaserider in the colony. He led an adventurous life in the South Australian bush, yet at odd times read the classics and English poets. He wrote a good deal of verse, and even sat for a spell in the provincial legislative assembly. But neither here nor

in Victoria, where he ultimately made his home, was he in any of his various vocations persistent and sedulous enough to make a decent livelihood, and he soon ran through a legacy his father left him. He was sensitive, proud, solitary, and melancholy in temperament. He had married a domestic servant and believed himself to have lost castemost unreasonably, for there is evidence that he retained to the last the affection and respect of his friends, avoided the grosser excesses not uncommon in the bush, was chivalrous to women, and had no sordid interests in the turf. He was severely disappointed when his hopes of securing the succession to the Scottish estate of Esslemont in Aberdeenshire turned out to be barred by legal obstacles. Financial embarrassment deepened his natural gloom and unhinged his mind, and he shot himself at Brighton, a seaside suburb of Melbourne. He had earned the love of all lovers of poetry amongst his countrymen by Sea-spray and Smoke-drift (1867), Ashtaroth (1867), and Bush Ballads and Galloping Rhymes (1870). The Sick Stock-rider' is a marvellously vivid transcript from the bush-life he knew; and 'How we beat the Favourite' is perhaps the best ballad of the turf in English. 'From the Wreck' and 'Wolf and Hound' are colonial experiences, so that his subjects are occasionally Australian. But on the whole the spirit and temper are, as in the bulk of Australian verse and prose, those of a typical and representative Briton. Unlike Kendall, he never made Australian scenery the sole subject of any poem; even 'Whispering in the Wattle Boughs' is not the voice of the Australian forest, but, like 'An Exile's Farewell,' 'Early Adieux,' 'Wormwood and Nightshade,' the echo of his own sad memories, not unmixed with sense of failure and remorse. He glorified the horse and his rider in such a way as to secure local enthusiasm; but he owed more to Byron and Browning, Tennyson and Swinburne, than to Australia or anything Australian. He was fond of short dramatic romances based on mediæval literature, as in 'The Rhyme of Joyous Garde' and 'The Romance of Britomarte;' Ashtaroth, a dramatic lyric, suggests the influence of Faust and Manfred. It is not the specifically Australian element that commends him to his readers, but the vitally human utterance of manhood, gallantry, energy, and pathos. Marcus Clarke wrote a biographical introduction to Gordon's collected poems (1880; repeatedly reprinted); and under the not too appropriate title of the Laureate of the Centaurs, J. Howlett Ross published a memoir in 1889.

Henry Clarence Kendall (1841-82) was born in a poverty-stricken hut at Ulladulla in New South Wales, and was brought up in the solitudes of the bush. His father, the son of a missionary, had fought in Chili under Dundonald; his mother was a granddaughter of Leonard MacNally, Irish playwright and informer. From

a lawyer's office in Sydney Henry passed to a clerkship in the government service. From boyhood he had written verses, and he found time to do a good deal of journalistic work. He struggled ineffectually against his dipsomaniac heredity, resigned his post in the Colonial Secretary's office in 1869, did not prosper in business with his brothers, and secured a small appointment as an inspector of forests. Unlike Lindsay Gordon, he had a keen feeling for nature as revealed in Australian scenery and life in the bush, and sang of Australian mountains, streams, and forests with a wistful charm. In virtue of this and of his national odes he has been called the national poet of Australia, and he has earned a permanent place in the esteem of Australians; but he has not come home to their hearts as Lindsay Gordon did, though his verse is more carefully finished and melodious. What glimpses he gives of his own life experiences are sad and depressing; and confessedly he has not Gordon's force or verve. Yet 'September in Australia,' 'The Hut by the Black Swamp,' 'Death in the Bush,' 'The Grave of Leichardt,' and many other of his poems show true poetic gifts. His most sustained effort is 'Orara,' a narrative poem of tragedy and adventure in the bush. His best work is found in his Leaves from an Australian Forest (1869), eminently racy of the soil; his earliest in Songs and Poems; his last in Songs from the Mountains. A collected edition appeared in 1886.

Marcus Clarke (1846–81), the son of a London barrister, after an undisciplined and precocious youth emigrated to Australia when he was eighteen, and failed to interest himself in his work either in a Melbourne bank or on an up-country sheepstation. But from the time that he secured an appointment on the Melbourne Argus it was plain he had found his true life-work; and though he remained a Bohemian, improvident, vexatiously erratic, and indisposed to drudgery or patient, persistent labour of any kind, he was recognised as having the makings of a brilliant journalist and man of letters. In Long Odds, a pessimistic study of a mésalliance and the victimising of an easygoing hero by two or more villains, he had to get friends to help in supplying instalments to keep up the supply of copy for the serial in which the tale was published. He wrote much for magazines ; produced pantomimes, burlesques, and controversial pamphlets; and succeeded admirably with some short realistic tales, such as Pretty Dick and Gentleman George's Bride; but it is mainly as author of For the Term of his Natural Life that he has been called the most notable Australian prose writer. His chef-d'œuvre is a powerful but painful story expressly meant to bring out the appalling brutalities that-almost inevitably -accompanied and flowed from the hap-hazard system of transportation of criminals and the hiring out of convict labour in the settlements.

The terrible realism hardly goes beyond the facts, and is relieved by a humour only too savage and cynical, and an occasional touch of romance; Lord Rosebery said that it 'has all the ghastliness of truth.' The ingenuity of the plot is perhaps less satisfactory than the dramatic power of the development and the life-like reality with which the characters are endowed; Clarke's keen insight and the accuracy of his observation are more remarkable than his creative power. But his extravagant and improvident ways forced him to write so much and to have so many irons in the fire that he failed to do justice to his powers, and, like Lindsay Gordon and Kendall, he died young-he was but thirty-five at his death.

Alfred Domett (1811-87), Browning's lost 'Waring,' was, like Browning, a Camberwell man, studied at St John's, Cambridge, and after being called to the Bar, migrated to New Zealand in 1842. In swift succession he occupied the principal public posts in the colony, that of Prime Minister amongst the rest. The year after his return to England (1871) he published his famous-but too lengthy-Maori epic Ranolf and Amohia, a South Sea Day Dream. He had contributed verses to Blackwood in 1837; his Flotsam and Jetsam (1877) was dedicated to Browning.

James Brunton Stephens (1835-1902), born at Borrowstounness in Scotland and educated at Edinburgh University, was for thirty years closely associated with the intellectual life of Australia. His Convict Once (1871), an elaborate poem in hexameters on a sad story, was written while he was a tutor in a Queensland squatter's family. He subsequently held a post in the Civil Service, and in virtue as much of his shorter humorous pieces ('The Chinee Cook,' 'Ode to a Black Gin') as of his more serious and finished work ('The Angel of the Doves,' 'Mute Discourse'), was commonly known as the Queensland poet.

Thomas Alexander Browne has, under the pen-name of Rolf Boldrewood, written Robbery under Arms (1888), A Modern Buccaneer (1894), The Squatter's Dream (1895), A Canvas Town Romance (1898), Ghost Camp (1902), and other Australian tales of adventure. Born in London on the 6th August 1826, he was taken to Australia in 1830 by his father, Captain Sylvester John Browne, a founder of Melbourne; and there, after a good education and a varied experience in stock-farming and other vocations, he became a police-magistrate and goldfields commissioner in New South Wales, till 1895. His Old Melbourne Memories contain vivid sketches of up-country life on the cattlestations in 'the days before the gold.'

Benjamin Leopold Farjeon (1836-1903), born in London, went almost straight from school to try his luck at the Australian gold-diggings, but settled in New Zealand, wrote a story or two, and at Dunedin was manager and part-proprietor of the

first daily newspaper published in New Zealand. By 1870 he was in London working as dramatist and novelist. His first success, Grif, was followed by Blade-o'-Grass, Joshua Marvel, The Mesmerists, The Mystery of the Royal Mail (1902), and a long series of other stories, in some of which his colonial experiences are utilised.

Ada Cambridge, born at St Germains in Norfolk in 1844, sailed in 1870 with her husband, the Rev. G. F. Cross, for Victoria, where they settled since 1893 in a Melbourne suburb. Under her maiden name Mrs Cross has since 1891 become famous as a novelist-The Three Miss Kings, the story of three bush-bred girls, being followed by A Marked Man, A Little Minx, Materfamilias, Path and Goal, The Devastators (1901), and other novels, besides poems and Thirty Years in Australia (1903), reminiscences and views of Victorian life, manners, and problems. In most of her stories the interest centres on the human and English element in the characters, often both strong and tender, and depends but little on 'local colour' even when the scene is wholly or partly laid in Australia. She is strong in pathetic scenes, and her style is simple and natural.

Mrs Campbell Praed, born in 1851 Rosa Caroline Prior, daughter of the PostmasterGeneral of Queensland, has written some thirty novels dealing largely with the political and social life of well-to-do colonials. In Policy and Passion (1881), one of her first stories, she professed that her aim was to depict 'certain phases of Australian life in which the main interests and dominant passions of the personages concerned are identical with those which might readily present themselves upon a European stage, but which directly and indirectly are influenced by striking natural surroundings and conditions of being inseparable from the youth of a vigorous and impulsive nation;' and she has sought to fulfil this aim in most of her Australian novels. Notable amongst her works in which a pessimistic tone is noticeable -are Policy and Passion, Nadine, Miss Jacobsen's Chance, The Romance of a Station, and The Insane Root (1902). She married Mr Mackworth Praed in 1872; and in 1902 she published My Australian Girlhood, autobiographical reminiscences.

Tasma, born in London about 1860, came with her father, Mr Huybers, to Hobart in infancy, and when little more than a girl was writing stories, sketches, and reviews in colonial journals. In 1879 she went to live in France, where she wrote for the reviews and lectured; and in 1885 she married M. Auguste Couvreur, a Belgian publicist. Her first and best-known novel, Uncle Piper of Piper's Hill, published in 1889, deals with types of the Australian plutocracy, and has been compared with the Silas Lapham of Mr Howells. In her Earliest Youth, Not Counting the Cost, and The Penance of Portia James deal also with Australian character.

George Egerton is the pen-name of Mrs Golding Bright, bred an artist, but a novelist by profession. Born in Melbourne about 1870 (her maiden name Dunne), she has been thrice married,

and has lived in Ireland, the United States, South America, London, and elsewhere; and her works include Keynotes, Discords, Symphonies, Fantasias, The Wheel of God, Rosa Amorosa.

APE COLONY, destined to be the nucleus of a vaster British South Africa, did not become permanently a British possession till 1814. What has been written by Dutch colonists in Dutch or in the Cape taal is not of literary value, and lies outside the scope of the present work. The earlier literature in English connected with South Africa is rather about it than of it, and, as has been already said, consists mainly of books that are no books, such as government reports, or of the experiences of missionaries, hunters, explorers, or shipwrecked sailors, all of them English born and European in culture and outlook. The Rev. John Campbell's Travels in South Africa was in 1814 a notable contribution to a series that included Dr Livingstone's first volume of Missionary Travels (1857), and later records of exploration, travel, and adventure; and books on South Africa were multiplied prodigiously by the troubles that led to the Boer War of 18991901. To another category belong the letters sent from Africa in 1797-1801 by the lady ever dear to Scotsmen as the author of Auld Robin Gray, Lady Anne Barnard, who as wife of the governor had exceptional advantages and perhaps disadvantages -for studying life at the Cape (see Vol. II. p. 804).

Thomas Pringle, also Scottish, was not much longer-hardly six years-in Africa, but in his verses written there struck an actually African note, and by his African Sketches awakened interest in the small and troubled colony, which already in vision he saw extending northward to, and even 'peradventure, in after days,' beyond the equator (Vol. II. p. 791). The autobiography (1901) of Sir Harry Smith, the governor commemorated in the names of Harrismith and Ladysmith, gives a vivid picture of colonial conditions in the middle of the nineteenth century. Bishop Colenso's famous book on the Pentateuch was not merely written in South Africa, but originated in problems raised by a Zulu anxious inquirer; as the controversy mainly concerned theology in Britain, Colenso has been treated above (Vol. II. p. 452). Some of Mr Rider Haggard's novels reproduce very successfully the local colour and atmosphere of South Africa, and in so far may distinctly rank as African.

George McCall Theal, born in 1837 at St John, New Brunswick, went in youth to South Africa, was active as a journalist, and by 1877 was recognised as an authority on all that concerns Bantu history, customs, and folklore. On behalf of the Cape Government he successfully carried

out a mission to keep a Kaffir tribe from taking part in the war which had just broken out; in the Basuto War of 1867-68 he fulfilled a like mission with singular tact and insight into native character. For fourteen years he was chief clerk in the Department of Native Affairs; and having for a time been Keeper of the Archives of the Colony, he was ultimately made Colonial Historiographer. His History of South Africa, which for comprehensiveness and conscientious research takes rank with our greater European histories, has been in progress for over thirty years, and suffers somewhat from the piecemeal publication corresponding with the course of his researches: thus, while The History of South Africa from 1486 to 1691 appeared in 1888, The Beginning of South African History, incorporating much newly discovered matter bearing on parts of the same period, saw the light only in 1902. He has striven to attain impartiality, and only by the hasty has been reproached for Dutch or 'pro-Boer' prepossessions. LL.D. of Queen's University, Kingston, and D.Lit. of the University of the Cape, he has published fifteen volumes of South African Records in Portuguese, Dutch, and English; Genealogical Registers of colonial families; shorter books on the history of the colony: and a volume on Kaffir folklore.

Mrs Cronwright Schreiner is doubtless the most original author to whom South Africa has given birth. Daughter of a missionary of German family in the service of the London Missionary Society (her mother a Londoner), she was born in Basutoland about 1865; and while yet in her teens startled the conventional English world of letters by her Story of an African Farm, a powerful series of imperfectly finished pictures of life on a Boer farm, and of the spiritual problems and struggles that rend an inquiring soul. It was professedly by Ralph Iron;' but when it was known to be the first work of Miss Olive Schreiner, a brilliant literary future was prophesied for her. Dreams (1890), a group of spiritual allegories, hardly increased her reputation; and when, after her marriage (1894) to Mr S. C. Cronwright, the controversial note became dominant, her work lost in charm and interest as well as in power: Trooper Peter Halket (1897) was practically an anti-Rhodesian pamphlet. More explicitly polemical were (jointly with her husband) The Political Situation (1895) and An English South African's View of the Situation (1899), on the problems that issued in the Boer War, her view being strongly in sympathy with the Cape Dutch.