Reference Index

This Index defines grammatical terms which are basic to the
student's understanding of this course. Also included in this
Index are definitions of the specialized terms Dr. Linton has used
throughout the text. No attempt has been made to show where
in the text these terms occur; for this information, refer to the
General Index.

Abrupt Modification

The use of the modifier immediately after the subject at the beginning of a sentence. (This use, though grammatical, throws an unnatural and illogical emphasis on the subject. It should be avoided unless the writer determines that such emphasis is desirable in a particular instance.)

The proposal, though sound in some respects, was considered impractical.

Absolute

Often called a "nominative absolute," this expression is a sentence modifier. It contains a subject plus a participle and is grammatically independent of the sentence it modifies.

The staff meeting having been called to order, the Director began his discussion of budget items.

The work being ready, the secretary delivered it to the front office.

Abstract words

An abstract word differs from a concrete word as a general reference differs from a specific reference.

"Reptile" is abstract (or general); "garter snake" is concrete (or specific).

"Fruit" is abstract (general); "orange" is concrete (specific).

In this text Dr. Linton seems to prefer the terms general and specific.

Active (voice)

The form of the transitive verb used when the subject is doing something— is doing the action that the verb tells about.

His report focused attention on the weakness of the proposal.
(Passive: Attention was focused on the weakness, etc.)

The taxpayer filed the return in the X District Office.
(Passive: The taxpayer's return was filed in, etc.)

Adjective

A word that describes, limits, or qualifies a noun or pronoun.

small business, bills paid, long-term gain

Adjective clause (phrase)

A dependent clause or a phrase used like an adjective to modify a noun or pronoun.

Adjective clause: The man who is leaving the office had an appointment with the Director.

Adjective phrase: The man leaving the office had an appointment with the Director.

Adverb

A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It answers the questions, where, how or how much, when.

Do it quickly.

The taxpayer can be granted an extension only if his situation meets these standards.

However difficult the assignment may be, he will complete it satisfactorily.

Adverb clause

A dependent clause modifying a verb, adjective, or adverb; it is usually introduced by such linking words as when, since, while, because, where.

When the applicant's name is reached on the register, his application can be considered.

We could not find the letter because it had been misfiled.

Aiming

As used in this course, aiming is the process of choosing the best sequence of points to be covered. It is part of the preparation or outlining which precedes writing. Dr. Linton uses the term with a companion term, "grouping." See "Grouping and Aiming," page 150.

Agreement

Agreement is a way of showing the exact grammatical relationship between a subject and verb, a pronoun and its antecedent, and a demonstrative adjective and the word it modifies.

Agreement of subject and verb:

The offers in compromise have been signed.

The committee has agreed on a course of action.

Agreement of pronoun and antecedent:

After the agents received their classroom training, they began the on-the-job training phase.

Every taxpayer has the right to appeal his case.

Agreement of demonstrative adjective and word modified:

These kinds of transactions require your close attention.
This kind of violation is considered serious.

Ambiguity

The confusion of two meanings. The antithesis of clarity, ambiguity is often described by writers as being of two kinds-semantical ambiguity (resulting from the choice of a word that may be interpreted in either of two ways) and syntactical ambiguity (resulting from the improper fitting together of the parts of a sentence, so that there is more than one way of interpreting the grammatical relationships between words).

And which

An expression that should not be used unless there is a preceding which in the sentence to complete the parallel construction that "and which" implies.

Not: This is the report we were looking for and which documents the action taken.

But: This is the report which we were looking for and which documents the action taken.

Antecedent

The word or group of words a pronoun stands for; must be identified if the writer is to ensure that the pronoun and its antecedent are in agreement.

Not: A moment after the Secretary's wife christened the ship, she was afloat on the river.

But: The ship was afloat a moment after she was christened by the
Secretary's wife.

He is one of the men who were being considered for the
position.

Everyone is required to retain his copy of the Handbook.

Appositive

A substantive (a word or group of words used as a noun) placed beside another substantive and denoting the same person or thing. When appositives are not essential to the meaning of the sentence, they are set off by commas; when they limit the meaning of the sentence, they are not set off.

Mr. John Doe, the taxpayer's counsel, will attend the conference.

(Nonrestrictive appositive; not needed to identify the man; set off by commas.)

GSA's pamphlet Plain Letters is being widely used throughout the
Government.

(Restrictive appositive; if set off by commas, the appositive
would seem to identify this as GSA's only pamphlet.)

Auxiliary verb

The verbs like be, have, can, may, shall, will which combine with main verbs to form verb phrases.

Case

The affidavit shall be signed; he has gone.

The property of a noun or pronoun which shows, either by change of form or by position, the relation of the word to other parts of the sentence.

Three cases: nominative, possessive, objective.

Clause

A group of related words containing a subject and a predicate. Independent (main or principal) clauses are complete within themselves and can stand alone as complete sentences. Dependent clauses cannot.

If you follow the trend of the discussion, you can be more confident about your response.

(The underscored portion is a dependent clause; the remainder an independent clause.)

Climatic order

The arrangement of ideas in a sentence in rising order of importance. Illogical; unemphatic: Mrs. John Doe inherited a large farm, some old furniture, and a small insurance policy.

Climatic order; emphatic:

Mrs. John Doe inherited some old furniture, a small insurance policy, and a large farm.

Collective noun

A noun which names a group or class. These nouns are singular if they refer to the group as if it were a unit, plural if they refer to individuals that comprise the group or class.

The audience is receptive. (A unit)

The audience differ in their opinions of the performance. (individuals)

Comma

A punctuation mark used to separate, to group and enclose, and to emphasize.

Comma splice (run-on sentence)

The term used to describe joining two independent clauses by a comma.

One partner signed the form, the other did not.

(Use a period or a semicolon in place of the comma, or add a connective.)