CHAPTER II. OF THE INFLUENCE OF WEALTH ON THE POLITICAL CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE OF GREECE AND OF ROME. In the early periods of Grecian history, we find the people of Attica divided into several small and independent communities, which were at length united under Theseus, and Athens became the capital of the kingdom. The numerous small communities of Boeotia became in like manner united under Thebes, and the twenty smaller states of Phocis associated to send deputies to a general congress. The same tendency to combination of action thus exhibited in the various states, was shown in relation to the affairs of Greece at large, at an early period, in their union for the purpose of carrying on the war against Troy, and in the institution of the Amphictyonic league, the Olympic and other games. With the union of the people of Attica under a single government, we find a gradual tendency to the establishment of free institutions. The single archon, originally chosen for life, was first substituted for the king, and then exchanged for ten archons, holding office for a single year. The right of suffrage appears to have been limited to a certain class, to whom the officers were responsible. For a long period the history of Athens is almost a blank, marked only by these various changes in the form of government. That it is so, is evidence of its peaceful policy. We know little of its connexions with other states, except that with its immediate neighbours, Megara and Eubœa, for a considerable period, there was established a sort of union, and although wars did occur, peace was the habitual and regular condition of their mutual intercourse, while the history of Sparta, rendered remarkable by its frequent wars with its neighbours, is well known to us. * Thirlwall's Greece, vol. i., p. 373. This peaceful policy, the proximity of Athens to the Ionian cities, then rapidly advancing in civilization, its facilities for intercourse with them, and the identity of the people, warrant us in believing that in no part of Greece was there so rapid an improvement in the condition, moral and physical, of the people. We are, it is true, told of the abject dependence* to which the agricultural labourers had been reduced, and of the high rate of interest at which the smaller proprietors were compelled to borrow money upon mortgage of their property, but the very fact that these people could make their complaints heard, is evidence of the improvement of their condition. We hear loud complaints of the corn-laws of England, while the people of India submit in silence to oppressions, the tithe of which would outweigh those of corn-laws, and excise-laws, tithes and church-rates. We know that prior to the time of Solon the men who subsisted by trade and by employment in the mechanic arts already constituted an affluent and intelligent body, and that the proprietors of the more elevated portions of the territory, on the north and east, were an independent class, not liable to the oppression under which the agricultural population of the lowlands are said to have groaned. In a country so small as Attica, it is difficult to believe that there could have been any great difference of condition between the free labourers on the land, the free people of the coast, engaged in trade or commerce, and the free artisan. If we desired any other evidence of the improvement of the general condition, it would be found in the fact, that those who had exercised power found themselves under a necessity for dividing it with the people. Under the legislation of Solon, we find the whole body of citizens exercising the right of voting in the popular assemblies. It is true that, as yet, they were not all eligible to the high offices of state; but, on the other hand, they were not liable to taxation for the support of government. The first class, eligible to the highest offices, were taxed accordingly, while the fourth class, excluded from the magistracy, and from the other rights of a full-armed warrior, were exempt * Thirlwall's Greece, vol. ii., p. 31. from the duties incident thereto, and from all direct contributions. The magistrates were responsible to the people. During the subsequent eighty years, we find the Athenians in the enjoyment of almost perpetual peace, attended with a constant improvement of condition. For a considerable portion of this time, the government was administered by Pisistratus and his sons, but the people retained not only the form of election, but the influence which tended to prevent the adoption of measures that might be injurious to their interests. The expulsion of Hippias was followed by an alteration in the constitution, proving the constantly increasing influence of the people, resulting from the rapid increase of wealth and the general improvement of condition that had followed the adoption of freer institutions. Attica was divided into 100 townships, each having its local assembly and its magistrates for the regulation of its local concerns: the constituency was increased by the admission of aliens, and many slaves were emancipated: and the vote by ballot was introduced. Here we find the increase of wealth attended by a steady increase in the power of the many, and equally steady diminution in that of the few. We find the people in the smaller assemblies managing their local concerns, leaving to the general council the management only of those in which the whole community was interested. The institution of slavery still existed, but among the free people of Athens the system of selfgovernment was in full operation, accompanied by a near approach to perfect equality of political rights and duties. The rapid advance in wealth and the rapid increase in the power of the people, unfortunately, excited the jealousy of their less wealthy countrymen, whose institutions were less popular, and accordingly we find Sparta and Thebes uniting in an unsuccessful attempt to compel the restoration of the Pisistratidæ. Not only was it unsuccessful, but the Athenians were enabled to extend their territory by taking possession of the estates of the landowners of Chalcidice, which were divided among a large body of colonists, a result not unlikely to stimulate them to future wars, to be waged for the sake of the plunder that might be acquired. With the exception of a dispute with the Æginetans, and the fitting out of a fleet of twenty vessels, to assist the Ionian colonies against the King of Persia, the Athenians appear to have enjoyed peace, attended with a constant increase of wealth, until the invasion of their territory which was terminated by the battle of Marathon. Immediately thereafter we find them applying the produce of the mines, which had always been distributed among the citizens, to the increase of the navy, thus diminishing the tendency to accumulation of wealth. Peace prevailed during the following ten years, at the expiration of which Attica was occupied by the troops of Xerxes, who spread havoc and desolation throughout the whole territory, and finally destroyed the city by fire. With the exception of the small amount that was saved on board of the fleet, all the accumulations of centuries were thus destroyed. From this time we find a change in the policy of the Athenians, produced by this change in their condition. Deprived of the capital by the aid of which they supported themselves as peaceful artisans, or agriculturists, we find them henceforth chiefly employed in the trade of war, and extorting from their allies or subjects, in the form of tribute, the means of lavish expenditure. From a peaceful democracy, governing themselves, they become an oligarchy, governing others, and with a severity proportioned to the number of masters. From this time we find a constantly increasing difference in the condition of the few and the many, the former distributing their bounty, and the latter greedily accepting it. With this change of physical condition, we find a corresponding change of moral condition. By extortion of every description, Themistocles accumulates a large fortune, much of which he distributes among the people of the poorer classes. Cimon, enriched by plunder, throws open his gardens, and distributes money and clothing. He walks abroad, attended by a numerous train of followers, who from industrious labourers become indolent paupers, dependent on the bounty of individuals. With every step downward there is increased facility in accomplishing the next one. The thirst for plunder renders it easy to find men to fill the army and to man the ships, and the plunder itself furnishes the means of support. Naxos is reduced to subjection, the first of the free states. The Phoenician fleet next furnishes a vast amount of booty. The allies are induced to compound for personal service by the payment of money, and now the greatest part of the people of Athens are maintained in the service of the state. War is carried on in Egypt, and in the Peloponnesus, while Megara is defended by one body of Athenians, and Ægina besieged by another. The public treasures are removed to Athens. The tribute is increased. A tax of 5 per cent. upon the imports and exports of all the allies, including 1000 towns and cities, is levied. The duties are farmed out, and the collectors add to their weight for the increase of their own fortunes. The allies, or subjects, are compelled to resort to the Athenian courts of law for the settlement of all differences, when the amount in question exceeds a certain very small sum, and for the trial of all capital offences. Justice is obtained with difficulty. The affluent citizen of the subject states, as well as aliens resident in Athens, are subject to constant risk of their property, and even the states themselves find it necessary to purchase protection against the oppressive demands of the sovereign city. The treasure thus accumulated is expended for purposes purely Athenian. Temples are built, and the city is rapidly improved. Theatres are erected, at which the Athenian is entertained gratuitously, while the allies or subjects, at whose expense they are maintained, are obliged to pay for admittance. The right of an Athenian to be maintained by the labour of others renders citizenship valuable, and an inquiry is instituted which results in the rejection of 5000 persons who had claimed to be citizens, all of whom are said to have been sold as slaves. Notwithstanding this reduction of their numbers, the indigent abound, and it becomes necessary to send out large colonies. Large squadrons are kept afloat, and great public works are undertaken, with a view to find employment at the public expense for those who would otherwise be idle. The people are now paid out of the public purse for attendance at the popular assemblies, and the condition of a large portion of them may be inferred from the fact that an obolus, equal to 14d. sterling, or 3 cents, was an object of desire. Plato introduces Socrates VOL. III.-15 |