having revised and discussed anew the observations of the Sun, made since the time of Bradley at Greenwich, at Paris, at Königsberg, to the number of 9,000, we have been forced to quite a different conclusion, viz., that the observations of the Sun are far from what they ought to be, on account of the systematic errors which affect them, and that there is no discordance between theory and observation which may not be attributed to errors in the latter.

In spite of all, the discussion of the observations of the Sun led us hence to an important result connected with the great question which agitates, at this moment, the scientific world; a result which surprised ourselves, so much had the determination of the parallax of the Sun, deduced by the director of the Berlin Observatory from the Transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769, inspired a false confidence. I arrived at the conclusion that the parallax of the Sun, estimated then at 8'57", ought to be increased by the 25th part of its value.

Soon after, the comparison of the theory of Venus with the observations led to the same result, the necessity of increasing by the parallax of the Sun.

Finally, the theory of Mars led, in its turn, to a conclusion not less precise. It was proved that we could not account for the ensemble of the observations of Mars without increasing the movement of the perihelion by about one-eighth. This was the reproduction of the same fact as in the case of Mercury, and the conclusion to be drawn from it was the same, viz., that the planet Mars must be subject to the action of a quantity of matter till then neglected, and that it must be estimated at the eighth part of the mass of the Earth.

But then two hypotheses were possible, as we explained at the séance of June 3, 1861: either that the matter till then left out of the count resided in the belt of the small planets as a whole, or that it must be added to the Earth itself. In the latter case, and as a consequence, the parallax of the Sun must be increased by the 24th part of its received value, that is to say, that we would be led to the same result already deduced from the theories of the Sun and of Venus.

Meantime M. Fizeau has given a method for determining the speed of light, by a physical experiment, on the surface of the earth; and from this measurement, combined with the quantity of the aberration of the stars, we know that we can deduce the parallax of the Sun.

Foucault, on his part, had devised a plan of solving the same question by another method, and he was engaged in realising the experiment. I pressed him strongly to carry it into execution. We know that in the seance of Sept. 22, 1862, Foucault announced that he had fixed the rate of light at 298,000 kilometres per second; hence, by adopting the quantity of aberration determined by Struve, 8.86" resulted for the parallax of the Sun, a number corresponding to an increase of 1-30th of the received value.

M. Cornu, in the important paper read by him at the last sitting, resolved definitively the question by the employment of the method of M. Fizeau. He was good enough to refer to the determination which I presented to the Academy at the sitting of July 22, 1872, based on the celebrated and very exact observation of the occultation of the star Aquarii by the planet Mars, an occultation observed in 1672 by the three great astronomers, Richer, Picard, and Romer.

Moreover, we shall combine materials obtained from various points of view on this delicate question, and will further increase by discussion the great interest which will be presented by the materials collected with so much devotion by the various expeditions destined to the observation of the present Transit of Venus. For this reason, and because the method which results from the occultation of Aquarii is present under a form precise and striking, we shall shortly ask permission from the Academy to

deposit the work in its hands, after having given it the necessary developments.

Jupiter and Saturn have given rise to a theoretic work the extent of which has been considerable, on account of the very great mutual perturbations of the two planets. The comparison of the theory of Jupiter with the observations has presented, after the proper modifications of the elements, a complete harmony. The tables of Jupiter have also been adopted by the editor of the Nautical Almanac to serve for the preparation of that important work. I owe to our confrère Mr. Hind, superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, the satisfaction of thus seeing adopted by the astronomical world the various tables of Mercury, the Sun, Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, so far as they have appeared.

The tables of Saturn are now constructed, and their comparison with the observations is almost finished. The theories of Uranus and of Neptune being also completed, it only remains further to effect their comparison with the observations.

The profound knowledge which my excellent colleague M. Gaillot, chief of the Bureau des Calculs, and member of the Council of the Observatory, has of these matters, and the devotion with which he has assured the laborious construction and comparison of the tables of Jupiter and Saturn, are to me a sure guarantee that the final work will be, whatever happens, carried out to the end.

RUSSIAN FORESTS

VEGETATION in the fossil or recent state forms the main source of the wealth and prosperity of most nations, either directly or indirectly: directly, in the case of the vast subterranean deposits of the remains of former plant-life in Britain, as also in the broad expanses of land covered with timber-trees in Russia. According to recent statistics* the extent of the forests of Russia in Europe is about 442,897,500 acres, or forty per cent. of the whole area. The forests are very unequally distributed, and internal communication is still very imperfect in many parts of the empire; hence much of this wealth is at present unavailable. Every year, however, the facilities for transport are increased, and there is a corresponding augmentation in the amount realised. Nearly sixty-five per cent. of the forest land is situate in the four governments of the North-Archangel, Vologda, Olonetz, and Perm; this equals sixty-five acres to each inhabitant. The governments of the South are relatively poor in timber, and in some parts almost treeless; but since 1842 the forest administration has been engaged in remedying this defect by planting largely. Between 1866 and 1870 upwards of 20,000 acres were planted, exclusive of the action of private owners. The principal trees are the Scotch pine, spruce fir, larch, birch, lime, aspen, and oak. To these may be added for the governments of the South, though relatively playing an unimportant part in commerce, the elm, ash, beech, hornbeam, maple, various poplars and willows, &c. The value of the forest products exported in 1871 amounted to 16,026,553 roubles, of which more than one-third came to this country. But the internal consumption gives a better idea of the immense wealth of these forests. It is only possible to give an approximate estimate of the value, which Mr. Werekha states must be at the very least 265,450,000 roubles per annum. In Russia, wood is still either the only or the principal fuel used. The railways consume wood for fuel to the annual value of 7,200,000 roubles. Wooden drinking-vessels, platters and spoons, take the place of pottery and metal in many districts, except in the houses of the rich. Mr. Werekha estimates that forty million wooden spoons are made every year; but Mr. Weschniakoff, in his account of the domestic industries of Russia, puts the figure at thirty millions.

* "Notice sur les Forêts et leurs Produits," etc. Par P. N. Werekha.

But the most destructive industry, so far as the forests are concerned, is the manufacture of bast mats, bark boots (lapti), cordage, and other articles prepared from the liber or inner bark of the lime, birch, and willow, chiefly of the former tree. It is computed that 100,000,000 pairs of lapti are made annually, each pair requiring the bark of four young trees; thus 400,000,000 trees are cut down every year for shoes! Lime-trees from five to ten years of age, and half-grown birch, are employed for this purpose. Such reckless waste is much to be regretted; and Mr. Werekha observes that the pines are tapped for their resin and bled to death in from ten to fifteen years, | in the same way as the Landes of Gascony were denuded of their pine-forests during the last century.

The previously almost useless aspen, either for fuel or building, has attained to considerable importance within the last few years as a material for paper-making. There are already ten manufactories actively engaged in the preparation of this paper in Russia, and two in Finland; and as vast reserves of this tree have accumulated in the forests, it is expected to prove a source of great riches for many years to come. Timber, of course, is the most valuable article exported, though resinous products and bast mats bring in a large sum. The Scotch pine, spruce fir, birch (for coach-building), and the oak, are the principal and almost the only timbers exported. Speaking of the giant oaks of Russia, Mr. Werekha becomes almost sentimental, for they form the strength of British and French shipbuilders, and occasionally revisit their native country in a form by no means flattering to national pride, as the Russians are still very small shipbuilders.

THE INDIA MUSEUM *

THE HE India Museum, at present located at Whitehall, has long been known for its extensive and valuable collections of Indian products, a collection too valuable, indeed, not to have been made more available, both for scientific and commercial purposes, than it has been. The removal, however, of the specimens to the galleries at South Kensington will bring them within the reach of ordinary mortals who have neither bodily strength nor inclination to make a pilgrimage to the topmost floor of one of the highest buildings in London.

The importance and value of these collections has to some extent been shown in the several reports which have from time to time been issued from the Foreign Office. Dr. Forbes Watson, as Reporter on the Products of India, has done much service in this respect, and Dr. M. C. Cooke, who has drawn up the present report, is no novice amongst Indian gums and resins, having gained an extensive experience from his long official connection with the Museum.

There are, no doubt, many products of the Indian forests that ought to be included in European commerce, but, from the want of a proper knowledge of their uses, have never established themselves in the market. Individually, we have often deplored the prevailing prejudice amongst commercial men in favour of old and well-known commodities, amounting sometimes even to the absolute rejection of new products, without giving such products a fair trial. Dr. Forbes Watson, in an introductory note

to the report under consideration, in reference to this, says it should "be remembered that gums or resins sent over for valuation in the London market are necessarily subject to comparison and competition with the very best qualities of the same substances which come into any of the European markets, and that careful collection is not a too frequent characteristic of Indian products:" Dr. Watson further points out that it is of very great importance to the existing and future trade of India that

Report by Dr. M. C. Cooke, on the Gums, Resins, Oleo-resins, and resinous products in the India Museum, or produced in India. Prepared under the direction of the Reporter on the Products of India. 1874.

samples should be sent home in sufficient quantity for report, since this is the only means by which they can be brought under the notice of competent authorities. For this purpose it is suggested that in the case of gums, resins, &c., quantities of from 20 lbs. to 25 lbs. would be sufficient for distribution amongst brokers and traders, as well as for analysis and experiments. The necessity, also, of obtaining accurate information on the botanical source of the plant yielding any particular product is strongly urged. The value of accurate specimens gathered at the time of collecting the article itself, whether it be gum, resin, wood, or fibre, must be apparent to everyone, and is strongly advocated in the article "Botany" in the "Admiralty Manual." In all cases such specimens should consist of leaves, flowers, and, where possible, fruits also, securely labelled and numbered, so that no mistake may

occur.

This report of Dr. Cooke's is valuable, as it brings together nearly all that has been written on the gums and resinous products of India. The botanical synonymy of each species, with references, is first given; next, a short botanical description; then its habitat, native names, history, description, and uses; and finally, in the case of the most important products, references to the works where the subject has been treated of. Dr. Cooke has brought his report down to the most recent period, for we find under the genus Garcinia, of which the species are described as yielding gum, a description of G. Griffithii, with the following note :-"Anderson says of this plant that there is in Maingay's herbarium a plant very like it in habit, but described by him as having a circumsciss anther, which is cultivated in Singapore as the true gamboge of Siam. There still appears to be some doubt as to the source of Siam gamboge, which Dr. Hooker seems disposed to attribute to this tree." The fact is, that in the most recent revision of the order, Garcinia Griffithii of Anderson has been considered identical with G. morella, by Hanbury, and which Dr. Hooker thinks has sufficiently var. pedicellata, to which Siam gamboge has been referred distinctive characters to raise it to the rank of a species under the name of G. Hanburyi. Again, Dr. Cooke refers to the very recent work of Flückiger and Hanbury, in which Siam gamboge is attributed to G. morella, var. pedicellata, as stated above. Indeed, throughout the

report there are frequent references to the "Pharmacographia," but we are not a little surprised that Stewart and Brandis's "Forest Flora" is not quoted. Thus, for instance, at p. 24 of the report, the Marking Nut, Semecarpus anacardium, is dismissed with very few lines; while in the "Forest Flora" is an excellent description of the tree; of the wood, which "is full of an acrid juice which causes swelling and irritation, so that the timber cutters object to fell it unless it has been ringed for some time;" and of the fruit and the black varnish, which is prepared from the pericarp, and which is used mixed with lime-water for marking cotton. Small consignments of these fruits occasionally arrive in this country, and not long since a quantity of a very fine kind came into the J. R. J.

hands of a London house.

UMBELLULA, OR CLUSTER POLYP AB BOUT six months since (vol. x. p. 142) we referred to a letter from Prof. Wyville Thomson, in which he mentions having brought up from a depth of nearly 1,500 feet, between Prince Edward's Island and the Crozets (Kerguelen's Land), specimens of an Umbellula. When the Challenger was between the coasts of Portugal and Madeira, several specimens of another species of the same rare genus, but from a depth of about 2,000 feet, were also dredged up. The history of these curious Cluster Polyps is interesting. Some hundred and twenty years ago, and some one and twenty years before M. Kerguelen discovered the land now bearing his name,

Capt. Adriaanz, the master of the whaling-ship Britannia, being then in lat. 79° N., and about eighty miles from Greenland, on pulling up his sounding line, found two specimens of a large plant-like polyp clinging to it; the length of the stem of the larger specimen was six feet, and he noted that the expanded flower-like polyp which was at one end of the stem was of a fine bright yellow colour. Struck by their size and beauty, and the strangeness of such creatures living at a depth in the sea of more than 220 fathoms, he brought them home to his friend Mr. Dunze, of Bremen, who had been a pupil of the illustrious Haller. Mr. Dunze gave the smaller specimen to Christlob Mylius, a Professor of Botany at Leipzig, and the larger to Peter Collinson, F.R.S.; this latter gentleman gave it to John Ellis, of zoophyte fame, to describe, which he did in the Philosophical Transactions for 1752, accompanying his description with a plate. What became of this specimen is unknown. Mylius's one found its way into a collection in Göttingen, and was not to be found there by Pallas in 1766. No specimens being found for thus more than a century, an air of uncertainty hung round this Cluster Polyp, and its portrait, so often copied in our text-books, seemed to be all one was likely to know about it. It was, therefore, with the greatest delight that the writer of these lines, in the summer of 1872, saw two specimens of Umbellula in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm; one rare object after another had been shown to him by Prof. Lovén; but the Umbellula, though the last, was not the least of the treasures accumulated therein by this esteemed professor, who stated that Mr. J. Lindahl had dredged them up during the expedition of H.S.M. Ingegerd and Gladan to the Greenland Seas in 1871. Within the last few days we have received from Stockholm a quarto memoir, "Om Pennatulid-slägtet Umbellula af Josua Lindahl," with three plates. This memoir was read before the Royal Swedish Academy in February 1874, and describes the two specimens as two species, under the names of U. miniacea and U. pallida. Prof. Kolliker has also described one of the species found during the Challenger expedition as U. Thomsoni, making four species of the genus now described. It is marvellous what changes have taken place in our knowledge of the Natural Sciences in the interval between the description of Ellis's species and those so excellently described and figured in the memoir before us. The other genus Grinillum of the family Umbelluline, found about 1858 in a depth of 2,700 fathoms in the Banka Sea, will, we trust, be re-discovered by Prof. Wyville Thomson. It is only known by a fragment of the stem in the Leyden Museum, the crown of polyps having fallen overboard as Capt. Siedenburg, after whom the species is called, was pulling in the line to which it clung.

THE

E. P. W.

SCIENCE IN THE ARGENtine repubLIC* HE Bulletin of the National Academy of Exact Sciences of Cordova, of which the three first numbers have lately reached this country, gives us an interesting account of a new endeavour of the well-known naturalist, Dr. Burmeister, to introduce scientific studies into his adopted country. In 1868 Dr. Burmeister presented a memorandum to Dr. Sarmiento, lately President of the Argentine Republic, upon the expediency of adding a Faculty of Mathematical and Physical Sciences to the National University of San Carlos in Cordova. In response to this appeal authority was given to Dr. Burmeister by the Minister of Public Instruction to import eight professors from Germany to establish the Faculty; and Dr. Burmeister himself was appointed Special Com. missioner for the purpose, and eventually Director of this branch of the University. For a long time, Dr. Burmeister

Ecletin de la Academia Nacional di Ciencias Exactas existentente en la Universidad de Cordova. Entregas 1, 2, and 3. Buenos Aires, 1874.

tells us, his exertions to obtain a staff of professors from his old colleagues in Halle were unsuccessful. The novelty of the idea and the distance of Buenos Ayres rather stood in the way of his offers being accepted. At length, in 1870, two of the vacant posts were filled by the arrival of Dr. Max Siewert to occupy the chair of Chemistry, and of Dr. P. G. Lorrentz to fill that of Botany. In the following year the assistance of Dr. G. H. Weyenbergh, of Haarlem, was obtained for the chair of Zoology, and that of Dr. Sellack for the professorship of Medicine. Not until 1873 was the staff finally completed by the appointment of Dr. Vogler to the professorship of Mathematics. In the same year, as we understand from Dr. Burmeister's report, the plans for the construction of the new buildings necessary for the University were finally approved of by the National Congress, and the works are now in process of execution.

From notices which subsequently appear in the Bulletin we fear that Dr. Burmeister has met with some difficulties in controlling his staff of professors. This can be hardly wondered at when the novelty of the plan is considered, and the difficulty of getting eight persons, strangers to each other, to work together to establish a new institution in a far distant country, where a foreign tongue is spoken. We have little doubt, however, that under Dr. Burmeister's supervision all will ultimately right itself, and that the Academy of Exact Sciences of Cordova will become an institution highly creditable to the enlightened rulers of the Argentine Republic, who have established the National Observatory under the direction of the distinguished astronomer Dr. Gould in the same city. That some progress has already been made ́in the cultivation of the natural sciences in Cordova is apparent by several papers contributed to the first three numbers of the Bulletin, amongst which are essays "On the Land and Fresh-water Molluscs," by Dr. Doëring; On certain genera of Microlepidoptera," by Dr. Berg; "On the Vegetation of the province of Tucuman," by Dr. Hieronymus ; and "On the Salinas of Buenos Ayres," by Dr. Schickendautz.

NOTES

AT the suggestion of the Council of the Royal Geographical Society, a manual will be prepared for the use of the Arctic Expedition, consisting of reprints of papers in the transactions of learned societies which would not otherwise be accessible, and other materials; the object being to furnish an exact view of the state of existing knowledge of Greenland and the surrounding seas. The geographical and ethnological portions will be undertaken by the Arctic Committee of the Geographical Society. The other sections will be edited by Mr. Rupert Jones, under the supervision of a Committee of the Royal Society. The appointments of the lieutenants and other officers to the Arctic Expedition were made this week. The Royal Society has recommended the appointment of a botanist and a zoologist for the consideration of the Admiralty, but they have not yet been officially selected. Good progress is being made in the strengthening of the ships at Portsmouth, which have been ordered to be ready for sea by the middle of May. The statement, in some of our contemporaries, that Capt. E. Hobart Seymour is to be second in command of the Expedition, is incorrect.

MANY sorts and conditions of men will regret as a personal loss the death of the Rev. Charles Kingsley, which took place on Saturday last. We regret his loss as that of a man who had a warm love for science, and who by his writings and example has done much to foster a love for it among others. He was an honour to his country and his cloth, and it would be a good thing for the latter in many ways if its members could be persuaded to follow his example, and, like him, take a hearty

interest in every healthy form of human activity. Few men have been more loved than Charles Kingsley, and the wide influence of his example and teaching has been undoubtedly for good.

THE death is announced of M. d'Omalius d'Halloy, the wellknown veteran Belgian geologist, as having taken place on the 15th inst., at the age of ninety-two years. M. d'Halloy was born at Liége on February 16, 1783. He was a member of the Royal Academy of Brussels, of which he was president in 1850, Corresponding Member of the French Academy of Science, and Member of the Geological Society of Paris. He was author of a large number of scientific works; among others, Eléments de Géologie". (1831), "Introduction à la Géologie" (1833), "Précis élémentaire de Géologie" (1843), “Abrégé de Géologie" (1853), besides numerous memoirs in the Journal des Mines, the Journal de Physique, the Annales des Mines, the Mémoires of the French Geological Society, and the Bulletin of the Belgian Academy.

66

WITH regard to the Transit of Venus, the following telegram, dated Aden, Jan. 21, has been received :-"Ingress and egress well observed from three stations in Rodrigues; nine Janssen plates; fifty eight sun-pictures. Observers, Neate, Hoggan, Wharton."

A GENTLEMAN whose name is unknown has made a gift of 10,000l. for the promotion of university education among the working classes of Nottingham.

AT the recent meeting of Convocation of the University of London, a resolution was unanimously carried, "That in the opinion of Convocation it is desirable that a special examination be instituted in this University in the subjects which relate to public health." It was stated that there is every probability of the Senate giving force to the resolution by the establishment of an examination of the character indicated.

A COURSE of six lectures) on scientific subjects, in the Town Hall, Stratford, was commenced on Monday by Mr. J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., whose subject was the "General Principles of Spectrum Analysis." The hall, we believe, was crowded with an attentive and intelligent audience, largely composed, apparently, of people belonging to the working classes. Mr. Lockyer lectures on the same subject next Monday, and on the two succeeding Mondays Dr. Martin Duncan, F.R.S., lectures on “Mountain-making" and on "Coral Islands." On Mondays, March 1 and 8, Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S., will lecture on "Deepsea Researches." The lectures are given in connection with the Gilchrist Educational Trust.

THE Council of the Royal Horticultural Society have recently instituted a series of fortnightly lectures on Wednesday evenings, at eight o'clock, intended especially for those Fellows and their friends whose engagements prevent their attendance at the Wednesday afternoon meetings, and for the instruction of their gardeners. The first lecture of the series was delivered by Prof. Dyer, on the Growth of Ferns from Spores, which was followed by one last evening by Mr. A. W. Bennett, on the Fertilisation of Flowers by means of Insects.

FEW papers of greater interest to botanical students have recently issued from the press than Mr. Bentham's treatise on the recent progress of systematie botany, read at the Belfast meeting of the British Association, and which, but for untoward circumstances, would have formed the address to the Linnean Society at the Anniversary Meeting in May last. Commencing with a review of the history of systematic botany from the time of Linnæus, and of the gradual introduction of the natural sy stem, he then considers the principal works in this branch of science recently published, or now in progress, under the follow

ing heads (1) Ordines Plantarum, or general expositions of the orders and sub-orders constituting the vegetable kingdom; (2) Genera Plantarum, or systematic descriptions of all the genera constituting the vegetable kingdom; (3) Species Plantarum, or systematic enumeration and descriptions of all known species; (4) Monographs of orders and genera; (5) Floras, or histories of the plants of particular countries or districts; and (6) Specific descriptions, detailed or miscellaneous. The practical advice of this veteran systematist to compilers of works of this description should be carefully studied by all botanical writers.

A NEW French weekly scientific periodical has issued its first number under the patronage of a Standing Committee of the French Geographical Society. It is edited by M. Herz, one of the staff of the Journal Officiel. It is called the Explorateur, and is published for the purpose of promoting the cause of geogra phical exploration among the French. One of its first objects is to send trustworthy travellers into the Sahara, where M. Dourneau-Dupré and others were murdered a few months ago. The Explorateur is opening, at present, a private subscription on behalf of M. Largeau, who is desirous of trying his chances in the same region. Some native pioneers have been also sent out, and are expected shortly to transmit valuable intelligence from the central Sahara.

A PARCEL of dried plants has recently been received at Kew from the Samoan Islands, sent by the Rev. Mr. Powell. Some novelties may be expected from this region, as it is still very little explored.

PROF. DYER'S article on the Tree Aloes of South Africa, recently published in this journal, having elicited numerous inquiries respecting this curious genus, it may be interesting to some of our readers to know that several fine species are in flower at the present time in the Succulent House at Kew.

TREE FERNS are nearly all of elegant and pleasing habit, and one deserving these epithets in a high degree is Cyathea insignis, a native of Jamaica and other West Indian islands. A magnificent specimen of this species recently attracted admiration in the tropical conservatory at Kew. It has fronds upwards of twelve feet in length, the stipes or stalks of which are densely clothed with long glossy scales.

ABOUT fifty new genera were added to the flora of Australia during the year ending with the appearance of Baron Mueller's last report, many of them of great interest in phytogeography. The following are a few of the more interesting :-Corynocarpus, Carmichalia, Ilex, Lagerstroemia, Agrimonia, Embothrium (§ Oreocallis), Ulmus (§ Microptelea), Mora, Areca, and Wolffia.

PASSING through the greenhouse containing the collection of succulent plants at Kew the other day, a correspondent was much struck with the flowers of a plant he had previously taken to be an ivy. The resemblance in foliage and habit is indeed so strong that a botanist might easily mistake it for a species of that genus, unless, of course, it was minutely examined. It is a native of South Africa, and is referred to the familiar genus Senecio, S. macroglossus being its name. The yellow flower-heads are large and showy, the ray-florets being few and broad. A figure of it, we are informed, will shortly be This plant has been published in the Botanical Magazine. introduced into St. Helena, where it bears the name of Ground

Ivy, as may be learned from the label attached to a specimen in other South African species of the same genus present equally the Kew Herbarium, sent from thence by Mr. Melliss. Several interesting peculiarities.

Boxwood, the wood of Buxus sempervirens, which is almost exclusively used for the best kinds of wood-engraving, has been

for some years becoming more and more scarce. Wood of the largest diameter is the produce of the forests of the countries bordering on the Black Sea. Large quantities are produced in the neighbourhood of Poti, from which port the wood is shipped direct to England. The supply, however, from this port is, we learn, becoming fast exhausted; and it is said, unless the forests of Abkhassia are opened to the trade, it must soon cease altogether. The quantity exported from Poti during the year 1873 amounted to 2,897 tons, of the value of 20,6217.; besides this, from 5,000 to 7,000 tons of the finest quality annually pass through Constantinople, being brought from Southern Russia and from some of the Turkish ports of the Black Sea for shipment, chiefly to Liverpool. An inferior and smaller kind of wood supplied from the neighbourhood of Samsoon is also shipped at Constantinople to the extent of about 1, 500 tons annually. With regard to the boxwood forests of Turkey, the British Consul at Constantinople reports that they are nearly exhausted and that very little really good wood can now be obtained from them; in Russia, however, where some little Government care has been bestowed upon forestry, a considerable quantity of choice wood still exists; but even there it can only be obtained at an everincreasing cost, as the forests near the sea have been denuded of their best trees. The trade is now entirely in English hands, although formerly Greek merchants exclusively exported the wood. In the province of Trebizonde the wood is generally of an inferior quality; nevertheless, from 25,000 to 30,000 cwts. are annually shipped, chiefly to the United Kingdom.

THE trade between Portugal and Great Britain is very largely composed of fruits of the Citrus tribe: the value of the exports from Portugal have, however, of late been considerably augmented, and will be more so in a few years, by the large number of pine-apples shipped to England. During the last two or three years the cultivation of this fruit in the Azores for export purposes has been largely developed. Bananas, also, have occupied much attention, and have been exported in such quantities, and realised such remunerative prices, that a large and flourishing trade may be expected. With these products already established and yielding satisfactory returns, it would scarcely be supposed that landowners would devote their attention to other and untried crops; yet we learn that the Phormium tenax, or New Zealand flax plant, has been introduced into some parts of the Azores, where its growth has proved highly satisfactory; and as it is proved that it will flourish in places where nothing else will grow, it may, in course of time, become an article of export.

THE distillation and manufacture of attar of rose is a large and important branch of industry in Adrianople. In the northern parts of the country, we are told in an official document, the produce of 1873 exceeded by 35 per cent. that of the previous year, the quantity distilled being some 121,875 ounces, valued at about 90,000l. It is chiefly exported from Philipopoli to England, France, Germany, and Austria; and recently merchants in the United States and Germany have opened correspondence with firms in Adrianople, with the view of establishing agencies to further extend this branch of

commerce.

A VALUABLE and interesting report reaches us from New Zealand, on the "Durability of New Zealand Timbers." It has been drawn up by Mr. T. Kirk, F.L.S., and is by far the best account of the woods of that colony that we are acquainted with. New Zealand has exhibited her timbers at several of the international exhibitions; and though many of them have been remarkable both for size and beauty, they have never rivalled those of our Australian colonies, owing to want of care in seasoning, preparing, and naming the specimens. In some practical hints on seasoning timber, Mr. Kirk rightly says that no plan is so effec. tive as keeping it in well-ventilated sheds, protected from the

rain.

He points out errors in felling and using timber, which all practical foresters and builders are acquainted with, but which are unfortunately of too frequent occurrence in many countries, namely, felling trees during the growing season, using timber immediately after felling, coating green or unseasoned wood with paint, &c. In the list of useful woods given, which number thirty-eight distinct trees, the Kauri (Dammara australis), Totara (Podocarpus totara), and the Red Pine, or Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) have a first place. The first-named is the finest tree in New Zealand, growing to a height of 120 to 160 feet; its wood, also, is the most valuable, being used before all others for masts, spars, and other shipbuilding purposes. The wood is frequently very beautifully mottled, and would be much valued by cabinetmakers in this country, were it an article of import; but New Zealand woods reach us only occasionally. The Kauri is largely used in New Zealand for railway sleepers. As an instance of its durability, Mr. Kirk says that near Papakura, an ancient Kauri forest has been buried at some remote period; in some places the logs still show above the surface. Much of the timber has been dug up in perfectly sound condition, and used for sleepers on the Auckland and Waikato Railway. Kauri timber is also exported to some extent from New Zealand to Australia, Tasmania, and Mauritius; and during the past three years the quantity so exported has more than doubled. Considering the limited area to which the tree is confined, it is to be hoped that some system of conservancy will preserve the trees.

THE Senatus of Edinburgh University has received a favourable reply from the Treasury as to an endowment for the proposed Chair of Education. Dr. Bell's trustees offered an endowment of 4,000/., and the Senatus asked Government to grant a similar sum to complete the endowment. It is also stated that the arrangements for the establishment of the Chair of Education in the University of St. Andrew's are in such a state of forwardness that it is expected they will be completed forthwith, and that a Professor, with a suitable endowment, will be ready to enter on his duties by the beginning of next winter session.

THE Council of the Society of Arts have decided to offer the Society's Fothergill Gold Medal for an effective means of extinguishing fire on board ship, and they have directed the Secretary to enter into communication with leading shipowners, with the view of enlisting their aid in this important matter.

AN underground railway was inaugurated between Pera and Galata a few days since.

THE meeting at Paris of the International Conference on the Metrical System has been postponed till March 1.

ON the morning of January 22 an earthquake was felt at Ravenna, in Central Italy. The exact hour is not stated. It

would be curious to ascertain whether it was connected with the

rapid elevation of barometric pressure of 17 millimetres in a few hours, which was observed at the Paris Observatory and in many other places in France at the same time.

AT a recent meeting of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Prof. Leidy-from a study of some fresh specimens sent him by Prof. Hayden, and obtained about one hundred miles east of Greeley, Colorado-declared his conviction that the colossal genus Brontotherium of Marsh is synonymous with Symborodon and Miobasileus of Cope; and that all these must give place to Titanotherium of Leidy, of which there are probably not more than two species.

MR. S. W. GARMAN describes, in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, a new American species of serpent from Florida, under the name of Helicops alleni.

MR. WILCOX communicates to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia the account of an unusual mode of