now was foremost with all polar expeditions, must_recede before the far more important scientific questions. But these questions cannot be answered before all nations that claim a place at the head of civilisation leave aside all national rivalry, and resolve to make progress together in this direction. To obtain decisive scientific results, a number of simultaneous expeditions are absolutely necessary, and their object must be to collect or construct tables of yearly observations at different points round the pole, but their instruments and method of observation should be exactly alike. Only when this is done will the materials be furnished for the solution of those great problems of nature which are now mysteriously enwrapped by Arctic ice; only then will we reap the benefit of that enormous capital of labour, efforts, sufferings, and money which until now have been wasted in the polar district.

With regard to the means to reach the highest latitude, the camp of explorers is divided into two; some are in favour of ships, others expect everything from sledges. As long as it is the principal object of an expedition to reach high latitudes, sledges are doubtless preferable, but when higher results are aimed at, only ships can give the necessary basis to work upon. It is a great illusion to imagine that both can be perfectly united; on the contrary, one will always have to be subservient to the other, and they will generally be hindrances to each other.

Finally, Lieut. Weyprecht tenders his thanks to the officers of the expedition, whose untiring efforts and energy, frequently under the most difficult and sometimes the most dangerous circumstances, alone made it possib'e to present the scientific world at home with the above data of observations and results.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

U203 CaO

THE Journal of the Chemical Society for February 1875 contains two original papers by Mr. A. H. Church. The first is on the composition of autunite. The recent discovery of a new locality in Cornwall for autunite induced Mr. Church to make a fresh examination of this mineral species. The quantity at his disposal was rather small, but as a remarkable peculiarity concerning the condition of the water in this mineral presented itself, the author availed himself of two fine French specimens. The Cornish specimens occurred in thin isolated rhombic tables, translucent to sub-transparent, and were sulphur-yellow. We then have a minute description of the analysis made, and in conclusion Mr. Church finds the formula of autunite, as it exists in the unaltered crystals, to be P05. 10H0, whereas auU203 tunite dried in vacuo is PO. 2H2O. Upon examination CaO of the closely allied uranium copper phosphate, torbernite, it did not show analogous results, and the author found the formula of torbernite to be C3PO,.8H2O and CO P2O, 2H,O respectively; the latter, if the mineral is dried at 100°. Mr. Church considers, in conclusion, that there are cases in which the drying of minerals in vacuo removes essential water, and not accidental moisture only; and he further believes that absolutely dry air does, in still rarer instances, effect a similar alteration.The second paper is on the action of baryta on oil of cloves. Considerable differences existing amongst chemists on the action of caustic baryta on eugenol, the author repeated experiments he had made some time ago on a larger scale, and with eugenol from oil of cloves of ascertained genuineness. The author first gives a description of experiments as to the physical characters of pure eugenol itself, and of the terpine with which it is associated in clove oil. We then come to the experiments with baryta, and their result was the conclusion that the action of baryta on eugenol is not a precise or definite one; that a greater part of the eugenol is carbonised and destroyed, and that from the products of such destruction a minute proportion of the remaining eugenol receives an addition of CH2, becoming thereby converted partly into methyl-eugenol and partly into another body of the same empirical formula, and possibly isomeric with the ether. It is clear, therefore, that none of the former conclusions as to the nature of the action of baryta on eugenol are correct.-The remainder of the journal is dedicated to abstracts of papers published in other journals, many of which have already been noticed in these columns.

American Journal of Science and Arts, February.-The first paper in this number is Prof. Asa Gray's address on Jeffries

Wyman at the Memorial Meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History, Oct. 7, 1874, to which, as well as to the subject of it, we have already referred.-On some points in the geology of the Blue Ridge of Virginia, a paper by Mr. W. M. Fontaine, is concluded in this number.-Mr. J. D. Dana reviews Dr. Sterry_Hunt's "Chemical and Geological Essays," and Prof. Asay Gray contributes a short paper on the question, "Do varieties wear out?" The conclusion which he reaches we gave in a recent number (vol. xi. p. 334). In "Communications from the laboratory of Williams College," Mr. Ira Remsen treats of (1) the formation of paratoluic acid from parasulphotoluenic acid; (2) nitro-parasulphobenzoic acid; and (3) the action of potas sium on ethyl succinate.-Another chemical paper is by Mr. M. Carey Lea on the detection of hydrocyanic acid.-M. A. E. Verrill sends his thirtieth contribution to zoology, from the museum of Yale College; it treats of the gigantic cephalopods of the North Atlantic, and is illustrated with some good cuts.Among the smaller notes is a useful summary of the results obtained at twenty-six transit stations, twenty in the northern and six in the southern hemisphere.

Transactions of the Geological Society of Manchester, vol. xiii., part 7.-The papers in this part are-the President's (Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins) address on the most important additions during 1873-74 to our knowledge in those departments of geology that relate to mining, engineering, and terrestrial physics; "Fish Remains from the Coal Measures," by Mr. John Aitken, F.G.S. ; "Geology of the Parish of Halifax," by Mr. James Spencer.

Memorie della Soc eta degli Spettrocopisti Italiani, Dec. 1874Father Secchi writes on the physical study of the comets Coggia and Tempel 1874. He appears to have spectroscopically exa mined these comets on every opportunity, and to have compared their spectra with a Geissler's tube in front of the object-glass. He found the spectra of a hydrocarbon gas did not correspond with that of the comet; the brightest band of the spectrum of HC, is in the blue, while that of the gas CO or CO, is in the green, just as in Coggia's comet. On the other hand, the blue band is the brightest in the spectrum of Tempel's comet; and Secchi therefore attributes its light to a hydrocarbon. The nucleus appears to have given off polarised light, and also the surrounding portions of the comet. On July 9 the continuous spectrum of the nucleus appeared broken for a short distance on the red side of each of the hydrocarbon bands. On Sept. 5 Borrelly's comet appeared to have a number of bright points of nuclei dispersed throughout the comet.

Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 2,021.-Julius Schmidt communicates the observations on the number of sun-spots seen every available day at Athens. The average number of groups in January seems to be about five; in April it had decreased to two, and this average remained nearly constant throughout the remainder of the year. Position observations of Coggia's comet, by J. Dreyer, of Birr Castle, and the discovery of Planet 141, by Paul Henry, appear in this number. The transit of Venus appears to have been seen well at Java, by Metzger; the different appearances at various times during the transit are given. The eclipse of the sun was observed at Leipzig in January. It appears from the observations of the ends of the eclipse that the last contact was seen with the larger apertures before it was so seen with the smaller one.

Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesellschaft für Meteorologie, Jan. 15.-The first paper is a contribution by Dr. Hildebrandsson to the question of the condition of vapour in the atmosphere, founded on researches made by him and Prof. Rosen some years ago, and not before published, to his knowledge, beyond Sweden, Le Roy started, and Saussure accepted the theory, that air dissolves water or vapour as a fluid dissolves a salt. Wallerius, de Luc, and Dalton, on the other hand, were of opinion that vapour is formed through the action of heat exactly in the same way in a vacuum as in air. Since the demonstrations of Regnault, the latter view has been generally adopted. experiments resembling those of Rudberg and Regnault, Dr. Hildebrandsson and Prof. Rosen came to the following concla sions-1. If a gas or vapour of water be brought (mechanically or by evaporation) into a volume of gas, this volume s immediately compressed or shoved aside until the difference in pressure is annulled. 2. If a gas or vapour of water be taken (mechanically or by condensation) from a volume of gas, this volume of gas rushes in from all sides to fill up the vacuum or equalise pressure. The condensation of vapour therefore dubt less plays a large part in the origin and propagation of storms,

By

not only by the liberation of heat, but also by the sudden diminution of pressure, which causes an inflow of air and vapour. 3. When different gases and vapours are at rest next each other, they mix and diffuse thoroughly till the mixture becomes homogeneous. Hence it follows: (1) That the permanent gases, of which air consists, are not independent atmospheres, but thoroughly penetrate each other. This result is confirmed by all experiments, which show the composition of the air at all attainable heights to be the same. (2) That the ceaseless evaporations and condensaions render impossible the existence of an independent vapour atmosphere, or of a homogeneous mixture of vapour with the permanent gases, and cause a rapid decrease of vapour pressure with increase of height. (3) It is not permissible to subtract the tension of vapour from the height of the barometer, in order to find the pressure of dry air.-An article follows in the Kleinere Mittheilungen on the law of Dalton, respecting the independence of gas atmospheres, and on the composition of the air at great heights. The researches of Maxwell, Boltzmann, and especially of Stefan, lead to these results: The definitive equilibrium of a gas is determined by the law of Dalton, but not the manner in which the gas disposes itself before it has come to equilibrium. According to that law the mixture of two gases would take place with great rapidity, while experience shows the process to be very slow. The subtraction of vapour-tension from the height of the barometer is a false application of the law, and a reading thus corrected has a purely local signification in the narrowest

sense.

THE four numbers of the Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano for 1874 contain the results of a good deal of work done by Italian botanists, though several of the papers are by Russians, and are printed in French. A large proportion of the papers in this vol. vi. relate to Cryptogams; including one by Prof. Tchistiakoff on the development of the sporangia and spores in Polypodiaceae; by G. Arcangeli, on certain Fungi of the neighbourhood of Leghorn, and on Algae of the group Cæloblastæ; by N. Sarokin, on the development of Hormidium varium, an Alga belonging to the family Ulothricaceae; and by Prof. Tchistiakoff on the development of the spores of Equisetum limosum and Lycopodium alpinum, the subject being treated both in this and the previous paper by the same writer as a contribution to the history of the vegetable cell.-V. Cesati has a paper on hybridisation in the genus Achillaa, and on the gemmiparous leaves of Cardamine pratensis. There is a useful bibliography in each number, and we have a report of the proceedings of the Botanical Congress held at Lucca in 1843.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

LONDON

Royal Society, March 18.-"Report on Observations of the Transit of Venus made at Luxor, Upper Egypt, 19th December, 1874." By Vice-Admiral E. Ommanney, C.B.,

F.R.S.

Preliminary Abstract of Approximate Mean Results with the Invariable Pendulums Nos. 4 and 1821, in continuation of the Abstract published in vol. xix. of the Proceedings." By Captain W. J. Heaviside, R.E. Communicated by Professor Stokes, Sec. R.S.

Linnean Society, March 18.-Dr. G. J. Allmann, F.R.S., president, in the chair.-Mr. Rothery exhibited a convenient apparatus for drying plants when on a walking expedition. The following papers were read :-On thirty-one new species of marine Planarians from the Eastern Seas, by Dr. Collingwood. On the resemblances of Ichthyosaurian bones with the bones of other animals, by Mr. H. G. Seeley.

Geological Society, March 10.-Mr. John Evans, V.P.R.S. president, in the chair.-The following communication was read:-"The Rocks of the Mining Districts of Cornwall, and their relation to Metalliferous Deposits," by Mr. John Arthur Phillips, M.I.C.E. In this paper the author adduced numerous facts observed by him in the examination of the rocks of the mining districts of Cornwall which led him to the following conclusions:-The clay-slates of Cornwall differ materially in composition, but no rearrangement of their constituents could result in the production of granite. Some of the "greenstones" of the Geological Survey Map are volcanic rocks contemporaneous with the slates among which they are found, whilst others are hornblendic slates, diorites, &c. Granites and elvans having a similar chemical and mineralogical composition were probably

derived from the same source; but the volume of the bubbles in the fluid-cavities of both having no constant relation to the amount of liquid present, do not afford any reliable data from which to calculate the temperatures at which these rocks were respectively formed. The stone-cavities of elvans, and probably of some other rocks, are often the results of the irregular contraction, before the solidification of the base, of imbedded crystals of quartz. In rocks having a glassy base, glass-cavities will be produced. The vein-fissures of the tin- and copperbearing lodes of Cornwall were produced by forces acting after the solidification of the elvans, but in the same general direction as those which caused the eruption of the latter; and these fissures were afterwards filled with minerals deposited by chemical action from water and aqueous vapours circulating through them, but not necessarily at a high temperature. How far these deposits were produced by water rising from below or influenced by lateral percolation cannot be determined; but the effects produced on the contents of veins by the nature of the enclosing rock, and the occurrence of deposits of ore parallel with the line of dip of the adjoining country, lead to the conclusion that lateral infiltrations must have materially influenced the results. Contactdeposits and "stockwerks" have been formed by 'analogous chemical action, set up in fissures resulting from the junction of dissimilar rocks, or in fractures produced during the upheaval of partially consolidated eruptive masses. The alteration produced in stratified deposits in the vicinity of eruptive rocks is probably often due to similar percolations. It is not improbable that quartz may sometimes retain a certain amount of plasticity after it has assumed a crystalline form.

Zoological Society, March 16.-Dr. A. Günther, F.R.S., V.P., in the chair.-Mr. Howard Saunders exhibited a specimen of a Gull obtained by Mr. Gervaise Mathew, R.N., at Magdalena Bay, Lower California, closely resembling Larus fuscus, a species hitherto unrecorded from the New World.-A letter was read, addressed to the Secretary by Capt. John Biddulph, containing remarks on the Wild Sheep met with during his recent journey to Yarkand.-A letter was read from the Rev. J. S. Whitmee, of Samoa, South Pacific, giving particulars as to the occurrence of the Palolo (Palola viridis) on the shores of that island in 1874.-Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S., read a memoir on the anatomy and affinities of the Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferus). After an exhaustive account of the structure of this animal, based on the examination of a specimen that had recently died in the Society's Gardens, Prof. Flower came to the conclusion that it was most nearly related to the Cervida, and might be placed within the limits of that family.-A communication was read from the Rev. O. Pickard-Cambridge, in which he gave the description of twenty-four new species of spiders of the genus Erigone, from France, Corsica, Sicily, Spain, Morocco, and Algiers. Dr. A. Günther, F.R.S., read a second report on the collections of Indian Reptiles recently obtained by the British Museum, and described several species as new to science.-A paper was read by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin, containing an account of the birds collected by Mr. A. Goering on the Sierra Nevada of Merida, and at San Cristoval in Venezuela in 1874. -A communication was read from M. L. Taczanowski, containing the description of a new species of grouse from the mountains of Georgia, allied to the Black Grouse, which was proposed to be called Lyrurus mokosiewiczi.—Mr. A. G. Butler read the descriptions of a large number of new species of Sphingida.Sir Victor Brooke gave a notice of a Deer allied to the Fallow Deer from Mesopotamia, of which he had lately received specimens from Mr. P. J. Robertson. H.B.M. Vice-Consul at Bussorah. For this new form, which is found in the jungles along the valley of the Euphrates, Sir V. Brooke proposed the name Cervus mesopotamicus.

Meteorological Society, March 17.-Dr. R. J. Mann, president, in the chair.-The following communications were read-On the climate of Patras, Greece, during 1873, by Rev. Herbert A. Boys. This year was remarkable for sudden fluctuations and great ranges of temperature; the rainfall, amounting to 26'15 inches, was about the average, but the number of wet days (for that place) was great. The summer months, however, were very dry, there being only five days in June, none in July, and one in August, on which rain fell. There was a period of sixty-eight days from June 24 to August 30, without any rain whatever.-On ozone, by Mr. Francis E. Twemlow. paper gives an account of nearly all that is known of this remarkable substance. An interesting discussion followed the reading of the paper, bearing chiefly upon the amount of oxygen in the

This

air at various health-resorts.-On the annual means of thirteen years' observations at London, by Mr. Richard Strachan. The author, having already read a series of papers on the different seasons, now gives a summary of the results for the thirteen years. The mean annual value for pressure from observations made at 9 A.M. is 29'958 inches; the mean temperature of the air at the same hour, 49°6; the annual amount of rain, 24°2 inches; the number of rainy days, 165; the resultant direction of the wind, S. 84° W., and its force o'95. The author concludes as follows :-On the whole it seems that excess of pressure accompanies deficiency of rainfall, slow translation of the air from the north of west, and fair weather. Deficiency of pressure accompanies excess of rainfall, rapid translation of air from the south of west, and foul weather. If meteorological science could give prescience of the annual value of any one of the elements, the others could be predicted with considerable accuracy.

Geologists' Association, March 5.-W. Carruthers, F.R.S., president, in the chair.-On the relative age of some valleys in the north and south of England, and of the various Glacial and Post-glacial deposits occurring in them, by C. E. De Rance, F.G.S. The application of geology to agriculture and medical science caused the want of an exact knowledge of the various superficial deposits, which lie scattered over the country, to be felt, and led the late Sir Roderick Murchison to direct the Government Geological Survey in future to prepare a drift edition of each map, showing the actual deposit at the surface. The publication of such maps of the lower Thames valley and of South Lancashire enabled the author to compare the sequence of deposits in these two important districts, and the results arrived at, with the sequence exhibited in other areas. In Lancashire the Glacial Drift deposits attain a thickness of 200, and in one instance of 400 feet, and the valleys of the Ribble, Irwell, and Mersey were shown to have been excavated in these deposits by the denuding action of these rivers in Post-glacial times, which, as they gradually cut their valleys lower and lower, left wide and extensive terraces of river gravels on the slopes above; Manchester, and the villages between it and Altrincham, being built on one of these terraces. Of still newer date is the alluvial plain beneath the terraces, which is made of loam, peat, and river gravel. The peat was shown to be connected with the great peat mosses of West Lancashire, where it reaches 30 feet in thickness, and was correlated with the peat beds and submerged forests found beneath the sealevel, around the entire coasts of the British Isles and the North of France. Beneath the peat in the West Lancashire plains occurred the Presall marine gravel, which was correlated with the Burth beds of Somersetshire, the raised beaches of Sussex, of the Isles of Wight and Portland, and of Cornwall; also with the fluviatile gravel lying beneath the peat horizon, in the Lancashire valley alluvial plains, and in the tin-bearing gravels of Cornwall. The subsidence marked by the marine beds, and subsequent elevation, during the forest continental era, followed by a subsidence to existing levels, took place after the rivers had cut down their valleys to their present depth, with few exceptions, Neolithic man entering the country during the forest era. The far older terraces on the valley slopes were compared with the implement-bearing gravels of the Post-glacial valley of the Ouse at Bedford, and with similar ancient high-level gravels in the Thames, the Hampshire Basin, the Somme, and the Seine near Paris, where no Glacial deposits occur, and it was argued, that regarding the similar relation to the depth of the valleys excavated, to the drainage area, and the position of the implement-bearing high-level gravels-that these, like the terraces of gravels of Lancashire without implements, and those of Bedfordshire with, were alike of Post-glacial date. In the Pre-glacial continental era the Thames flowed in a similar direction to the existing river, but 100 feet above its present level, its course nearly defining the southern limit of the subsequent Glacial sea, under which the Weald of Kent and Sussex was never submerged. In Post-glacial times the Thames may have denuded the southern edge of the Glacial deposits, when it commenced to cut down its present valley and to deposit its oldest and higher river gravels, which are immediately overhung by the Glacial beds. The valley appears to have attained its greatest depth in the era immediately preceding the subsidence that occurred prior to the great peat and forest period, the bottom of the valley east of London being considerably lower than the bed of the present stream, but the level is not sufficiently low to lead to the belief that any streams that may have flowed from the watershed of the Weald anticlinal, through what is now the

Straits of Dover, to the prolongation of the Thames, would have cut sufficiently deep to have produced fissures that might have been fatal to either of the proposed lines of the Channel Tunne!.

Royal Horticultural Society, March 9.-Adjourned Annual Meeting.-Viscount Bury in the chair.-The Chairman move! the adoption of the amended report of the Council. The proposal of Messrs. Prince to construct a skating rink, and to pay a rent equal to 1,100l. a year, had fallen through owing to H.M. Commissioners (without whose consent the Society had no power to underlet any portion of its premises) having deemed it inexpedient to grant their consent. The report als pointed out that "the ordinary income of the Society cannot support its present expenditure," and that "unless the rent of 2,400. is paid to H.M. Commissioners next year the lease of the South Kensington Gardens may be forfeited, and to prevent this contingency an increased revenue must be obtained."-The Chairman announced that since the adjourned meeting, two members of Council, Sir A. Slade, Bart., and Mr. Chetwynd, had resigned, and the legal advisers of the Society had advise them that these vacancies must be filled by the Council, and no by the Fellows. In the interval, also, a despatch had been received from H.M. Commissioners, stating that they regarded the legal status of the Council as now free from objection, and were ready to resume official relations with it.-After some discussion, the amended report was unanimously adopted, and the Council having promised to summon a general meeting to consider the present position of the Society, the meeting adjourned.

Victoria (Philosophical) Institute, March 15.-C. Brooke, F.R.S., in the chair.-Rev. J. McCann, D.D., read a paper on the nature and character of evidence for scientific purposes. He commenced by stating that the mind could alone gain scien tific knowledge by the process of generalisation. This must be based on evidence that was sufficient, and such as warranted the inferences drawn from it. The nature of evidence was then examined, and the difficulty, but necessity, of correct observation and logical reasoning from this, in order to form a sound hypothesis, was shown. Various points in Prof. Tyndall's address

were criticised.

GLASGOW

Geological Society, March 11.-Mr. John Young, F.G.S., vice-president, in the chair.-The following papers were read:Notes on a tract of vertical trees in carboniferous strata; and on river débris found in sandstone, by Wm. Grossart, Salzburg. In his first paper, the author described a number of trees which had been found in a pit, 40 fathoms in depth, lately sunk to the "Little Drumgray" coal in the west end of Shotts parish This coal is of an average thickness of 22 inches, and is overlaid by a compact sandstone of from two to five fathoms in thickness, with a few inches of grey shale, seldom exceeding 1 foot, separating the coal from the sandstone above. In the workings of the mine eight erect tree-trunks had been brought to light, all resting on the coal-bed, and disappearing in the shale forming the roof of the mine; but there had been no opportunity of observing if they entered the sandstone above. The usual organic markings found on similar remains were absent, so that it was impossible to determine precisely to what genus they belonged. In his second paper, Dr. Grossart described a series of beds overlying the "Virtue Well" coal in his neighbourhood, the uppermost being a sandstone, 60 feet in thickness. Below this is a gritstone bed, two feet in thickness, containing rounded and angular pieces of quartz embedded in sand, also remains of trees, pieces of black shale, and gas coal This is succeeded by a thin shale bed, then by a laminated sandstone ten feet in thickness, followed by a black shale resting on the coal. From a review of the whole series, the author concluded that the beds under consideration were formed at the mouth of a river flowing from east to west at a period poster.r to the formation of the Virtue Well coal.

MANCHESTER

Literary and Philosophical Society, Jan. 18.-Mr. Jober Barrow in the chair.-Mr. James Cosmo Melvill, F.L.S., real a paper on the botany of Wilmington, North Carolina, with an especial reference to the habitat of Dionea muscipula, Ellis.

Feb. 15.-Mr. Charles Bailey in the chair.-Mr. Rogers exhibited a specimen of Carex ornithopoda, Willd., collected try Mr. J. Whitehead in Millersdale, Derbyshire, in July of ins year. Mr. Sidebotham, F. R. A.S., then read a paper, entitie, "Notes on the Botany and Natural History of Tenby and the

Neighbourhood."-Mr. Spencer Bickham read a paper on the different kinds of beehive used in this country, and exhibited specimens.

Feb. 23.-Mr. R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.-Mr. Joseph Sidebotham, F. R.A.S., sent for exhibition a specimen of the Colorado Potato Beetle (Doryphora decomlineata), which had appeared in great numbers in Canada last year, and had caused great destruction in the potato crops.-E. W. Binney, F.R.S., V.P., exhibited to the Society specimens of a strong arenaceous shale, approaching to a flagstone, containing numbers of macrospores of Lepidodendron.

March 9.-Edward Schunk, F.R.S., president, in the chair.On Mr. Millar's method of finding the axes of an ellipse when two conjugate diameters are given, by Mr. Robert Rawson. -Mr. A. M'Dougall invited attention to a specimen of carbon formed upon the roof of a gas retort, by the decomposition of the hydrocarbon gas by heat. The carbon thus formed resembles graphite in its almost metallic lustre, and it was suggested that its mode of formation might throw some light upon that of graphite.-On the presence of sulphate of copper in water heated in tinned copper boilers, by William Thomson, F.C.S.-Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., exhibited a collection of articles of the Neolithic and Bronze ages from the pile dwellings in the Lake of Bienne, lately presented to the Manchester Museum, Owens College, by Mr. J. Thompson. He called attention to the fact that the Neolithic peoples were the first herdsmen and farmers of whom we have any trace, and stated that to them we owe the introduction into Europe of domestic animals and of cultivated cereals. They were also the first weavers and gardeners. From the southern character of some of the domestic animals such as Sus palustris, and of some of the vegetables such as the Egyptian wheat and Silene Cretica, it may be inferred that they came from the south, probably from the south-east, from the warmer regions

of Central Asia.

WATFORD

Natural History Society, March 11.-Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., president, in the chair.-On the Cretaceous Rocks of England, by Mr. J. Logan Lobley, F.G.S. As an introduction to the study of the geology of Hertfordshire, the author described the stratigraphical relations and the geographical extension of the entire Cretaceous system and of its various subdivisions. The composition and origin of the chalk, including the results of the recent researches of the Challenger expedition, was specially dwelt upon, and the hypothesis of the organic origin of clays as well as of limestones was discussed. The relation of geology to botany was pointed out, and the members of this new Society were urged to make themselves acquainted with their local geology as a prelude to a more extensive knowledge of geological

science.

PHILADELPHIA

Last

Academy of Natural Sciences, Sept. 8.-Dr. Ruschenberger, president, in the chair.-"Notes on Santa Fé Marls and some of the contained Vertebrate Fossils," by Mr. E. D. Cope. On a new variety of Helix, by James Lewis, M.D. -Prof. Leidy stated that in the early part of last June, in examining some of the material obtained from a mill-pond at Absecom, New Jersey, he had observed a most wonderful amoeboid animal, of which he had made notes, but was not able at the time to make a drawing and satisfactory description. Subsequently he sought patiently for two days in the same material for another individual, but without success. week he paid a visit to the Absecom mill-pond to seek the curious amoeboid, and was so fortunate as to find it again. Prof. Leidy exhibited a drawing of the animal, and described it as follows:-The animal at rest is spherical or oval, or constricted back of the middle. In the spherical form it measured the onefifth of a millimetre in diameter; in the oval and constricted form it was about one-fourth of a millimetre long, and onesixth of a millimetre broad. It is white or cream-coloured, opaque, or translucent at the border, and was spotted green from food-balls of desmids. It moves with extreme sluggish. ness, and with little change of form. From the fore part of the body the animal was observed to project almost simultaneously a number of long, conical, acute pseudopods, about the onetwelfth of a millimetre long. From the back part in the same manner a multitude of papillaform pseudopods were projected about one-fiftieth of a millimetre long. All the pseudopods and the surface of the body everywhere bristled with innumerable minute spicules. From time to time more or less obtuse portions of the clear ectosarc were projected, and these likewise were

observed to be covered with the minute spicules. The opacity of the animal prevented the exhibition of a nucleus, if such exists. In general appearance the curious creature resembles one of the forms of Pelomyxa palustris, described by Prof. Greef, in "Schultze's Archiv," vol. x. Pl. iv., Fig. 9, but in this, minute spicules project only from the posterior disc-like extremity of the body, as they have also been observed to do in the corresponding part of Amaba villosa of Wallich, and perhaps other species. The general spiculate character of the Absecom amœboid is probably sufficient to distinguish the animal generically from Amoeba, and in this view the animal may be named Deinamaba mirabilis. BOSTON

Academy of Natural Sciences, April 8, 1874-Mr. Bicknell in the chair.-Mr. Stodder exhibited scales of Petrobius maritimus and Amathusia Horsfeldii, to show that the so-called "beads" were the results of imperfect observation and illumination. Mr. Bicknell exhibited and explained his achromatic condenser, made by Mr. Tolles after the design of Mr. Bicknell. Its focal distance is, and its aperture 150°. Its most important variation from other condensers is in the position of the stops, the diaphragm plate being placed close to the front lens, which gives a power of controlling the illuminating ray greatly superior to that possessed by other condensers.Mr. Samuel Wells exhibited a heliostat, remarkable chiefly for the small expense at which it was constructed. It was made from a marine clock, capable of running like a watch, in any position; the hands being removed, a pulley of in. diameter is slipped on to the arbor of the hour-hand; on the woodwork at the top of the clock is fastened bearings for a small shaft, carrying at its upper end the plane mirror intended to follow the movement of motion from the pulley on the hour-hand arbor by a cord. A the sun. On this shaft is a pulley one inch in diameter, deriving support attached to the side of the clock carries a subsidiary mirror directly above the revolving mirror. The clock is hung on a board, hinged so as to be capable of elevation to an angle equal to the complement of the latitude. The face of the clock is turned to the north. The revolving mirror is adjusted to the declination of the sun so as to reflect the ray to the north. The ray is received on the subsidiary mirror, which reflects it in any required direction. The cost of the heliostat was less than twenty dollars, and its performance sufficiently accurate for microscopic purposes.

April 15.-The president in the chair.-Dr. Samuel Kneeland read a paper on the geology, geography, and scenery of the Union Pacific Railroad, illustrated by specimens of ores, fossils, and minerals found along the route from Cheyenne to the Sierra Nevada, with lantern illustrations of such of the scenery as best displayed the geological features.

WELLINGTON, NEW ZEALAND

Philosophical Society, July 18, 1874.-The president, Dr. Knight, in opening the business of the evening, delivered an address, which passed in review the various questions discussed at the society's meetings during the past year. Its main feature was a dissertation upon certain peculiarities in the climate of New Zealand, and the evidences which, in the opinion of the president, proved the former existence of glacial periods in the southern hemisphere just as in the northern, but occurring alternately. The effect of ice in producing surface features had, in his opinion, been greatly overrated, and following up this opinion the president explained that the great ice sheets, several thousand feet in thickness, which the ice theorists required, could not have existed, as the pressure of the mass of ice would melt the lower stratum.

July 25, 1874.-Dr. Hector drew attention to the articles with which the museum had been enriched by the officers of H.M.S. Challenger. These consisted of specimens of different fishes, &c.-Mr. J. C. Crawford read a paper on the question, "Did the great Cook Strait River run N.W. or S.E.?" After which Mr. Hood read a paper on the hot winds of Australia having influence on the climate of New Zealand.

Aug. 8, 1874.-Mr. Travers read a letter from Capt. Turnbull, harbour master at Hokitika, to the Hon. J. A. Bonar, superintendent, descriptive of a portion of wreck found at the Haast, on the west coast of the Middle Island. This fragment was found at a great distance from the present high-water mark, surrounded by dense bush. It was discovered by diggers in 1867. Dr. Hector said that in 1867 he had called attention to the wreck. The most important point was the distance