producing poison of spontaneous endocarditis is formed in the pulmonic circuit, and is destroyed in the systemic.

4. The results of endocardial inflammation are the same in order as in inflammation of other structures; and that the bead formation is due to exudation.

5. A poison circulating in the blood and bathing all the tissues, may elect one tissue for its specific manifestation of effects as a poison.

6. While the presence of a specific acid poison in the blood will account for the specific disorder endocarditis, the other and attendant events in the rheumatic attack are to be sought for in a more general originating cause. Further back, toward such origin, I dare not attempt to penetrate on this occasion. In such direction, new and laborious experimental research is required, bearing on the one fundamental question, the oxyge nation of animal bodies in health and disease.

PART FOURTH.

Chronicle of Medical Science.

HALF-YEARLY REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY.

By HERMANN WEBER, M.D.

Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians, Physician to the German Hospital.

I. GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY.

1. VON BEZOLD: On the Distribution of Water, Organic Substance, and Salts in the Animal Kingdom. (Verhandl. d. Med. Ges. zu Würzburg, vol. viii., p. 251; and Canstatt's Jahresbericht der Physiol. Wissenschaften. in Jahr. 1857, p. 139.)

2. SCHERER: On the Proportion of Water and Mineral Substances in the whole Organism. (Verhandl. d. Würzburg, Gesellschaft., vol. viii., p. 266.)

3. BAUER: On the Per-centage of Water in the Organism. (Dissert. Inaugur., Würzburg, 1856; and Canstatt, 1. c., p. 141.)

4. SCHLOSSBERGER: Contributions to the Chemical Knowledge of Fatal Life. Second Article. (Liebig's Annalen, vol. ciii., p. 193; and Canstatt, 1. c., p. 141.)

SCHERER'S and Von Bezold's analyses, made in the laboratory of the former, lead to the following inferences:-1. Every animal possesses a certain proportion of water, of organic and of inorganic substances, which proportion depends on the age of the animal and on the class to which it belongs. Thus, the average for adult mammalia is-water, from 68 to 71 per cent., organic substance from 24 to 28 per cent., inorganic substance, from 3 to 5 per cent. Birds contain less water, slightly more organic, and considerably more inorganic, substance than mammalia. In the class of reptiles, the per-centage of water is still smaller, that of organic substance slightly, but that of inorganic substance greatly, augmented; while the batrachians, compared with the mammalia, exhibit a larger amount of water, a slightly smaller proportion of inorganic, but a much smaller proportion of organic, constituents. 2. The analogy of the anatomical constitution of the body of different species of animals implies analogy in the chemical composition with regard to the three series of substances (water, organic and inorganic substances.) 3. The development of every animal is connected with

certain changes in the proportion of the three series of substances. These changes appear to be analogous in every one of the three first classes of vertebrate animals, and consist-a, in the decrease of water from the foetal state to that of complete development (from 87 per cent. to 71 per cent.), which decrease is most rapid during the first eight days after birth; b, in the increase of the solid organic constituents (from 11 per cent. to 25 per cent.), which increase is greatest in the first eight days after birth; c, in steady increase of the inorganic solid constituents, which increase is slowest during the first period of life.

Similar researches have been made by Bauer, likewise under Scherer's superintendence. Bauer gives the results of the analysis of four mice. The amount of water varied between 68-012 and 71.654 per cent., that of solid organic substance between 24·35 and 28:49 per cent., that of solid inorganic substance between 3:36 and 3.99 per cent.

Schlossberger communicates a series of similar examinations, exhibiting the proportion of water, solid constituents, salt, and fat contained in the foetus, and in various of its organs. The foetuses analysed belonged to the bovine species. The proportion of water of these foetuses, between three and eight weeks old, varied from 91-77 to 92.76 per cent., that of fat from 0.53 to 0.60 per cent., that of ashes from 107 to 1-27 per cent., that of organic tissueforming substance from 6-27 to 6'43 per cent. Of the single organs, the blood contains least water, 81-90 to 82.28 per cent.; then follow the liver, the spleen, the thymus, organs which appear very active in the foetus, and contain a large amount of blood; the greatest quantity of water is found in the brain and lungs, viz., 89.24 to 92.59 per cent.

II. FOOD AND DIGESTION.

1. DENIS: New Researches, Chemical, Physiological, and Medical, on the Albuminous Substances (Paris, 1856; and Canstatt, 1. c., p. 149.)

2. FRESENIUS: Chemical Examination of the most Important Kinds of Fruit. (Liebig's Annalen, vol. ci., p. 219; and Canstatt, 1. c., p. 137.)

3. RINSE CNOOP KOOPMANS: Contribution to the Knowledge of the Digestion of Vegetable Albuminous Substances. (Moleschott's Untersuch., vol. ii., p. 158; and Donder's Onderzockingen, p. 71.)

4. WEBER, G. Nonnulla de Digestibilitate Carnis. 5. BUSCH: Contribution to the Physiology of the xiv., p. 140, 1858.)

(Gryphiæ, 1857; and Canstatt, 1. c., p. 63.) Digestive Organs. (Virchow's Archiv, vol.

6. VALENTIN: Contribution to the Knowledge of the Hybernation of Marmots. (Moleschott's Untersuchungen, vol. iii., p. 195.)

7. HEIDENHAIN: On the Absorption of Fat, see Sub. iv.

Denis admits only five representatives of the albuminous substances in the vegetable and animal organism-viz., in plants, glutin (gluten,) in animals, albumin (of eggs), and serin (albumin of serum), casein, fibrin, and globulin. All these substances, the author assumes, are insoluble in their pure state; wherever they are found dissolved, they owe this condition to a combination with acid, alkaline, or neutral salts. The coagulation does probably not cause any alteration in the chemical composition. Denis never met in plants with substances analogous to the albumin, fibrin, or casein of animals; the common gluten and the vegetable fibrin, are, according to him, only modified glutin, the vegetable albumin only a combination of glutin with salts, and the vegetable casein, the amandin (emulsin), and legumin, only products of the metamorphosis of this substance.

Fresenius communicates the results of a series of examinations of various kinds of fruit. We can extract only the figures belonging to some of the most common species of fruit.

II. According to the per-centage of Free Acid (expressed as the Hydrate of Malic Acid.)

III. Showing the proportion between the Acid, the Sugar, and the Protein▾

IV. Showing the proportion between Water, Soluble Solid Substances, and

Insoluble Solid Substanees.

per cent.

1:30

1.31

1.45

1.48

1.86

2.04

The proportion of albumen is in all fruits so small, that we refer for the figures relating to it to the original, as also for the table showing the per-centage of ashes. In comparing the proportion of acids, sugar, protein and gum, water, &c., it must always be borne in mind that Fresenius probably examined German fruit, and that the proportion of the various constituents varies greatly in different years, even in the same country.

Rinse Cnoop Koopmans' observations and experiments on the digestion of vegetable albuminous substances lead the author to the inference that gluten is not completely dissolved by diluted acid, but that the addition of pepsin to the acid produces a perfect solution, which is effected likewise by acidulated artificial gastric juice. With regard to the formation of peptones from vegetable albuminous substances, the author is of opinion that gluten is, by means of the gastric digestion, transformed in a gluten-peptone. Comparative experiments made with gluten and boiled albumen show that the acid best suited for the digestion of the former is much more diluted (th to th) than that for the digestion of the latter (4th to th).* G. Weber performed, under Budge's guidance, experiments on the digestibility of various

*For a further account of Dr. Koopmans' researches, see British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, vol. xx.

kinds of meat and fish, partly on dogs, partly by means of an apparatus for artificial digestion. The authors observed the breaking-down of the muscular fibres in the transverse direction as in general preceding that in the longitudinal direction. Raw meat was more slowly digested than cooked meat. The difference between meat boiled tender and baked was small; that of young animals appeared in general more digestible. The less rich fishes, as pike, plaice, sole, &c., are more quickly digested than the richer kinds, as salmon.

Busch furnishes valuable information on the physiology of the digestion and nutrition in general, derived from observations and experiments made on a female patient, aged thirty-one, in whom, through external violence, the intestinal tract was divided into two separate portions-the superior consisting of the stomach, duodenum, and a small part of the jejunum— the inferior of the larger part of the jejunum and the whole of the ileum and colon. The author had therefore the rare opportunity of observing the phenomena of a fistula of a jejunum in an otherwise healthy human subject. The accident had taken place six weeks before the admission of the patient into the University Hospital at Bonn; the wound in the abdominal walls was healed, with the exception of the fistulous opening. The woman had a voracious appetite, and devoured large quantities of food; the greatest part of this, mixed with the gastric, pancreatic, and intestinal secretions and bile, passed away from the fistulous opening in the jejunum; no particle of it entered the contracted and too distant aperture of the inferior portion of the intestinal tube. Extreme emaciation, loss of strength, tendency to sleep, and hoarseness, were amongst the principal constitutional phenomena.

The plan pursued by Busch, in order to restore the strength of the patient, consisted in the introduction of strong broths with eggs beaten up in them, occasionally also of pieces of boiled eggs and meat, into the inferior portion of the digestive tube. The strength of the patient increased rapidly under this treatment, and she gained also considerably in weight. This fact is of great interest, as it corroborates the view, that nutrition can take place-for some time, at all events-without the admixture of the gastric, pancreatic, duodenal, and hepatic secretions to the food. One might feel inclined to draw the further inference, that a complete fistula situated in the upper part of the small intestines renders the nutrition of the body through the stomach impossible; but this inference is made improbable by the circumstance that the ingestion of food through the mouth alone was sufficient to keep up and increase the strength of the patient after the recovery had reached a certain stage under the plan above described.

Although our space is limited, we cannot refrain from giving some of the principal observations made by the author, referring for the details to the essay itself. 1. There are two distinct sensations of hunger; the one is caused by the nervous system in general perceiving the want of fresh supply for the exhausted tissues; the other is produced by the nerves of the digestive organs alone. The former of these may continue, even when the digestive organs are filled with food. 2. The peristaltic motion of the intestines is not continuous, but shows periods of rest and of increased action; there is, however, no regularity in the alternation of rest and action. The force of the peristaltic motion could not be ascertained with precision, but it was sufficient to overcome a column of water two feet high. In the lower portion of the digestive tube, distinct antiperistaltic motion was frequently manifested. 3. The quantity of the intestinal juice (succus entericus) is very small and constantly alkaline. It will be remembered that this observation is in opposition to that of Frerichs, but in corroboration of Bidder and Schmidt's results. The per-centage of solids varied between 3-87 and 7.4 per cent., which is considerably greater than that stated by the authors just mentioned. 4. There can be no doubt that the intestinal juice exercises a digestive influence on proteinaceous substances. This process, however, is accompanied by that of putrefaction. 5. The intestinal juice transforms starch into grape-sugar. 6. It does not transform cane-sugar into grape-sugar. 7. The cane-sugar, absorbed as such, does not reappear in the urine. 8. Without the influence of bile or pancreatic juice, there is either no absorption of fat or at all events it takes place only to a very limited amount. 9. The reaction of the mixture of digestive secretions passing from the upper portion of the tube during the state of fasting was almost always neutral, only in rare instances slightly acid or alkaline. 10. This mixture of fluids did never exhibit the reaction of saliva. We may therefore conclude that the saliva is absorbed before the mixture reaches the jejunum. 11. The average per-centage contained in these fluids was 2:48. 12. The first portions of the food introduced into the stomach appeared in the jejunum from between fifteen to thirty minutes after the commencement of eating. 13. Solutions of cane-sugar disappear to the greater part already in the beginning of the digestive canal; what reaches the jejunum is transformed into grape-sugar. 14. Raw albumen of eggs is likewise partly absorbed already in the stomach and adjacent part of the digestive tube; the portion which enters the jejunum is unchanged. 15. Gum passes unchanged into the small intestines. 16. Gelatine becomes dissolved, and does not coagulate again; the greater part of it is absorbed. 17. Part of the casein contained in the milk reaches the

jejunum in an uncoagulated state. 18. The mixture of the digestive fluids contained in the duodenum emulsifies fatty substances completely, if its reaction is alkaline, but less completely if it is acid. 19. This mixture of fluids exercises likewise a digestive influence on proteinaceous substances. 20. The lowest quantity of digestive fluids entering the jejunum within twenty-four hours amounts to more than one-seventeenth of the weight of the body.

Valentin's researches show that marmots, during the state of hybernation, continue forming fæcal masses, which are from time to time excreted, in general together with the urine. These fæcal substances do not consist of the remains of food, but of excretive products of the body (mucus, epithelium, biliary constituents.) The stomach of hybernating marmots always contains some almost transparent acid fluid, in which are floating white flakes, composed of epithelium. The fluid contains 1-40 to 2.21 per cent. solids, and is considered by Valentin as the result of desquamation and dissolution of the superficial layers of the mucous membrane of the stomach.

III. BLOOD, CIRCULATION, RESPIRATION.

1. SCHLOSSBERGER: Contribution to the Chemical Knowledge of Fatal Life. mie, 1. c.; and Canstatt, 1. c., p. 169).

(Annalen d. Che

2. WELCKER, H.: On the Quantity of Blood and its Colouring Power, &c. (Zeitsch. f. rat. Med., Ser. III., vol. iv., p. 145. 1858.)

3. VIERORDT: The Phenomena and Laws of the Velocity of the Circulation of the Blood, according to Experiments. (Frankfurt, 1856; and Henle and Meissner's Bericht über Anat. und Phys. im Jahre 1857, p. 481.)

4. MILNE-EDWARDS: Lectures on Comparative Physiology and Anatomy. (Vol. i., Paris, 1857 ; and Henle and Meissner, 1. c., p. 242.)

5. NELSON PI: On the Movements of the Heart, the Sounds Produced, the Pulse, and the Movement of the Blood. (American Med. Monthly, vol. x., p. 81, Aug., 1858).

6. CALLIBURCES: On the Influence of Warmth on the Activity of the Heart. (Gaz. Hebd., No. VI., p. 468: and Canstatt, 1. c., p. 69.)

7. VALENTIN: Contribution to the Knowledge of Hybernation. (Moleschott's Untersuchungen, vol. ii., p. 285. 1857.)

8. SCHNEPF: On the Vital Capacity of the Lungs. (Paris, 1858; Virchow's Archiv, vol. xiv., p. 213. 1828.)

Schlossberger found the blood of several foetuses of cows either neutral or only slightly alkaline, coagulating by heat, without the previous addition of acetic acid. The blood of a foetus, thirty weeks old, contained per 1000:

The ashes were composed of 6·1 soluble and 3-5 insoluble constituents; they yielded 1.3 per millemetre of oxide of iron.

The per centage of fibrin was very small; an incomplete coagulation took place after between two and four days; the blood contained in the heart and large vessels was quite fluid. Welcker has continued his researches on the total amount of blood in various animals, according to his own method.* The author considers the number of observations hitherto made still too small to allow of the drawing of certain inferences, yet it appears to him very probable that the cold-blooded animals have much less blood than the warm-blooded; that there is an increase in the proportion of blood from the fishes to the naked, and from these to the scaly, amphibia; that the birds contain the largest amount, while the mammalia keep an intermediate place between the scaly amphibia and the birds. The average proportion of blood to the weight of body was found to be, for fishes, 1: 49; for naked amphibia, 1 205; for scaly amphibia, 1: 172; for birds, 1: 121; for mammalia and man, 1147. With regard to the differences observed between various species of the same family of animals, Welcker is inclined to believe that the size is of influence; but, contrary to Valentin, he has observed that the smaller animals contain a larger proportion. Within the same species the younger animals seem to possess a larger relative amount of blood, and the males a larger than the females.

Concerning the colouring power of the blood, Welcker's experiments tend to prove that

* Conf. the Physiological Reports in Nos. 38 and 48 of this Journal.