thing, to do with the beneficial or other results which follow. In regard of paralysis, it appears quite clear that the continuous current is of great practical utility; and the interrupted current of induction is also serviceable. Hiffelsheim is, we think, correct in saying that the physiological and therapeutical effects of the permanent continuous current are "not obtained by the contractions ;" and in his further observation we entirely agree, viz., that "this might perhaps lead to the supposition that the interrupted current does not, any more than the continuous, act immediately by contraction; and that in both cases dynamic electricity acts directly on the different elementary acts of the complicated function called nutrition."*

Practically, the application of either current should, in cerebral paralysis, be limited to the muscles; the electrodes being placed at short distances, and the intermissions (when an intermittent current is employed) should be rapid. But when the attempt is made to affect the muscles through the agency of their nerves, those special points must be selected which Duchenne was the first to point out. A most minute description, and careful delineation, by well-executed drawings of these points, will be found in the work of Ziemssen; and for practical information on the electric anatomy of man, it will prove more useful than any other treatise on the subject.

Where the object of electrical application is to awaken sensibility or induce certain movements in an individual intoxicated with alcohol, or poisoned by opium, the interrupted current of high intensity is required; but for the treatment of hyperæsthesia, either the interrupted or the continuous may be employed, and with an equal measure of success.

Thus, except in the particular instance referred to, the therapeutic effects of galvanism may be obtained from the one form of application as well as from the other; but inasmuch as the continuous current is free from pain, and can be so applied as to avoid all undue calorification, thus rendering it free from the injurious effects sometimes following an application of the interrupted, it possesses the decided advantage, and will, we believe, eventually be employed almost exclusively.

As to the apparatus to be used, but few words are necessary. The intermittent induced current may be obtained from the electro-magnetic, or the magneto-elec tric arrangement. In the one there is the trouble and frequent inconvenience of employing "exciting" fluids; in the other there is the necessity for rotation of the temporary magnet; but the latter will be found to be the lesser evil. When a continuous current is required, there is nothing which can equal the elegant chain-battery of M. Pulvermacher.

As a thoroughly successful application of electricity can be hoped for only by a comprehensive and profound knowledge of its physiological effects; the great desideratum of the present time is the acquisition of this knowledge. An agent which appears capable of inducing, increasing, reducing, or destroying the func tions of both muscles and nerves, ought not to be employed without extensive information and careful adaptation to the exigencies of the several cases to which it is applied; and until it can be so exhibited its success will be partial and accidental only. What is required, then, is the most cautious experiment and logical induction; for by this both the science of physiology and the art of therapeutics will advance; while they can but retrograde and become the object of contempt, if a few accidental successes are made the basis of an advertised panacea.

While, in the present day, there are a few who are thus intent upon the progress of that which may prove a great boon to suffering humanity, and whose recommendation of electricity is always guided by a definite knowledge of the effects which it is already known to produce; there are the many whose careless employment of the agent in all kinds of maladies resembles rather the prescriptions of the middle ages, embracing every kind of material-from man's skull to

• Extract from the Min. of the Meetings of the Acad. of Sciences, Paris. vol. xlvi.

sparrows' dung, and from diamond dust to copper filings-in the hope that some one of them might be of use to the sufferer, and that the others might mutually counteract their several injurious effects.

REVIEW IX.

1. The British Army in India: its Preservation by an appropriate Clothing, Housing, Locating, Recreative Employment, and Hopeful Encouragement of the Troops; with an Appendix on India. By JULIUS JEFFREYS, F.R.S., formerly Staff-Surgeon at Cawnpore, and Civil Surgeon of Futtegurh.-London, 1858. pp. 393.

2. A Brief Review of the Means of Preserving the Health of European Soldiers in India. Part I. By NORMAN CHEVERS, M.D., Bengal Medical Service.-Calcutta, 1858. 8vo, pp. 131. Reprint from "Indian Annals of Medical Science," July, 1858, p. 632 to 762.

THE author of the former of these works, during a lengthened period of service in India, was distinguished for the great attention which he bestowed upon every question which related to the health of the British soldier, for his proficiency in physical science, and for a vast amount of innate mechanical ingenuity. In this country he is better known as the inventor of the "Respirator," which bears his name, and which is in universal use. The volume before us, though written in a style somewhat quaint, is full of most original views and suggestions, and well deserves the serious attention of all who are interested in the preservation in health and strength of our armies in India. We proceed to give a brief epitome of its contents in the order followed by the author:I. On the Specific Properties of matter through which heat operates and is to be resisted. It is argued that the example of the natives of India is an uncertain guide in dress. Slow Conduction is the principle chiefly relied on by them for protection from heat, and this also is the principle on which Europeans wear flannel cap covers, and hats constructed of " Sola pith." Slow conduction, however, though a principle of high value in conjunction with others, is shown to be insufficient in itself for warding off heat. Evaporation is another principle, by means of which the effects of heat may be averted, yet it is a power which cannot be placed under safe control, nor be always at command when most needed, as on a line of march. The two principles of heat, the protective power of which has not been employed by the natives, nor sufficiently recognised by Europeans, and upon which the author places the greatest reliance, are those of Reflection and Slow Radiation. Both these principles are possessed in an eminent degree by bright metallic surfaces, a more general adoption of which in the clothing of our troops is earnestly recommended. Some remarks follow on the Convection and Subterranean Absorption of heat, having more especial reference to the construction of dwellings. II. General Remarks on Tropical Virulence and Vital Resistance. According to Mr. Jeffreys, the three enemies with which the British soldier in India has to contend, are the sun, the atmosphere, and the ground. He believes that the direct rays of the sun not only produce sun-stroke, but also generate fevers, dysentery, and acute internal inflammations, while at the same time, when long continued, that they induce such a debility of the cutaneous system, as to predispose to the influence of malaria. "The skin's debility is malaria's opportunity." The exemption of the natives from the bad effects of the sun is shown to depend upon the extreme thickness of their scarf-skin. The great error also is pointed out of attempting to acclimatize an Englishman by exposure, and examples are given to show the baneful results of such an experiment. The immunity of the Indian has been the work of many generations: in endeavouring to acclimatize an Englishman, the work of many generations is attempted to be effected at once. The ordinary caps and helmets supplied to our troops are described as "vapour tight boxes," preventing all transpiration.

"What then is to be said of coverings for the head, which not only let in solar heat to a large extent, but, as if they were intended as instruments of capital punishment, lock up the only door of escape by smothering the scalp altogether, or tantalizing it with a few ventilating holes of the size of a pin, or at most of a pencil, and at the crown only. The marvel is, how any warm-blooded animal should, with the head in such a predicament, escape apoplectic destruction, even though it were of the coolest temperament, emasculated and bovine! But that manly brains,-bulky and busy,-turgid with blood and with thoughts of blood!-with the spirits on fire and excited to combat!—should endure for an hour the double culinary process of roasting from without, and stewing within, is what no reflecting physiologist could have anticipated!"

The injurious effects of a heated atmosphere, apart from the direct rays of the sun, are next dwelt upon. Such an atmosphere reduces the tone of the cutaneous system, while at the same time, by failing to dissipate the sun's direct rays, it aggravates the evils which these are wont to inflict.

Mr. Jeffreys does not enter into the question of the mode of origin of malaria, but he observes, that the ground being a poor conductor, radiates and reflects heat upon the body of the soldier, and so materially increases the direct action of the sun from above.

III. The Soldier's Dress.-The head-dress is first considered :

"A head dress, to be effective, should possess such resisting power as to ward off entirely the whole rays of the sun throughout an exposure to its action of any duration; and not only from the skull, but also from the sides of the head, face and neck. It ought also to transmit so copious a ventilation over the head, as to encourage the perspiration to evaporate freely from it; and yet with a provision by which in cold weather the circulation of the air could be at once reduced or cut off. At the same time, such a head-dress should be no more cumbrous than was necessary to fulfil all those conditions completely."

Mr. Jeffreys gives several plans and descriptions of head-dresses combining all the properties which he recommends. The most complete provision is made for ventilation, while thin metallic plates are so arranged as to reflect the heat both from the exterior and from the surfaces of the ventilating spaces, and at the same time cause the little that is transmitted to be but slowly radiated in the direction of the head. Conduction is also called into play, by means of a layer of cotton wadding three-eighths of an inch thick, so as to transmit tardily whatever heat has not been intercepted by the reflection, slow radiation, and ventilation.

"This principle is not placed in the van, but is introduced as a powerful reserve to retard the progress of rays which have broken through all the previous barriers; against which, such fibrous matter is effective, whereas it can offer but poor resistance to the solar rays, if it is so placed as to receive the brunt of them direct."

The fabric next the head is of wool, so arranged as to permit the perspiration to be exhaled freely, and so produce cold by evaporation. There is also an arrangement whereby the effects of evaporation may be increased by moistening this wool with water from without.

Mr. Jeffreys has ascertained that helmets may be constructed according to his plan, not weighing more than from two to two-and-three-quarter pounds. This is no doubt heavier than many of the shakos at present in use, the weight of which is a frequent subject of complaint; yet the oppressiveness of the ordinary head-dress is attributable not so much to its weight, as is usually imagined, as to its imperfect poising, its pressure, and its want of porosity. Nothing is said as to the expense at which the author's headdresses might be constructed. Their shapes, also, are certainly not very elegant; and we fear that our military authorities will not "crucify fashion" to the extent which Mr. Jeffreys would desire. Yet their mode of construction, the principles on which this is founded, and the advantages to be derived from them, are deserving of serious attention. As regards the body dress of the British soldier in India, it is argued that a thin dress is ill suited for much exposure to a hot atmosphere, and that a barrier between this and

the skin is required. For this purpose, flannel "next to and enclosing the whole skin" is recommended, and in this recommendation we entirely concur. Flannel, being a nonconductor, wards off the excessive heat from without, while at the same time it maintains the temperature of the body within and prevents chills, and being also porous, it absorbs the perspiration and allows it to pass outwards readily, while it permits the ingress of atmospheric air. Those going to India should never fail to provide themselves with this useful material. Thick external clothing, during the hot months, is denounced, but in the cold season soldiers are recommended to be clad so as to be comfortably warm. The following sentence is well worthy of attention:

"Many soldiers and officers likewise think that because they are in India, they cannot suffer by any carelessness with respect to cold, and many, as a consequence, bring themselves upon the sick list, and with ailments often of a tedious character."

There can be no doubt that sudden chills are quite as frequently the exciting causes of inflammatory diseases in the tropics as in temperate regions. The previous heat diminishes the resisting powers of the skin, and often induces copious perspiration, and the rapid evaporation of the perspiration itself, produced by a current of air, is not rarely the source of the chill.

Some remarks follow on a Sun screen tunic, the great principle in the construction of which is, that it should be of such material as to reflect off as many as possible of the rays of the Sun. Here again bright metallic surfaces are called into play, and the author appears to have succeeded in manufacturing a flexible India-rubber cloth, with such a surface as to answer his purpose. For the details of the construction of the Sun screen tunic, as well as of the helmets, we must refer to the original work.

IV. On the Housing of British Troops in India.-Many original and valuable suggestions will be found under this head, which it is hoped will not be lost sight of in the erection of new barracks in India. A few of these suggestions we shall allude to. The ill effects which may accrue from lodging Europeans upon the ground floor are pointed out, as well as the importance of all the barracks and houses of the officers being furnished with a double roof. The great importance of thorough ventilation is insisted upon, and the advantages and disadvantages of the means already in use, particularly of the "tattees" (wet matting suspended over the door-ways), are discussed. An ingenious mode of ventilating and cooling dwellings, as well as of heating them in cold weather, is proposed, which is derived from the circumstance that the earth, some feet below the surface, is cooler than the atmosphere in summer, warmer in winter. It is recommended to sink in the neighbourhood of a dwelling a number of deep wells, and to connect these by cross tunnels, so as to form a lengthened subterranean passage, one end of the series of these passages opening on the ground floor inside the house, and the other, which communicates with the air, being furnished with a large cowl or wind sail, which will turn in any direction in which the wind blows. A constant subterranean current of air discharging itself in the basement floor of the house will thus be secured. Various observations on "thermantidotes" and "ventilating machines" follow, and a "refrigerator" of the author's own invention is described and figured.

V. On the Locating of British Troops in India.-Mr. Jeffreys dwells with much earnestness upon the necessity of establishing sanitary stations in India, and shows that he was an advocate for them so long ago as 1824. He agrees with Mr. Ranald Martin in thinking, that the proportion of European stations in the hills should be increased, and does not consider that the experience of the recent rebellion is unfavourable to such an arrangement, while the extension of railway communication would render the transfer of troops to any seat of disturbance at all times easy. The use of tramways in the construction of Indian roads is also recommended. Ravines near stations are pointed out as objectionable, being certain to become the rendezvous of the natives for depositing that which more refined communities carry off by sewers. The air, laden with putrid emanations, becomes stagnant in these ravines during the calm hot day, but as night advances, it becomes displaced by a colder and denser atmosphere from an adjacent cultivated plain, and is wafted through the open doors and windows of any

houses lying to the leeward. A high river bank with land under cultivation, is spoken of as an eligible site for a station. Mr. Jeffreys dwells with much force on the moral necessity which devolves upon the Government for rearing the child of the European soldier in a healthy climate, either in Europe or in the hill stations of India. We entirely agree with him. The awful mortality among the children of English soldiers in India should long ago have suggested some such procedure.

VI. On the Recreative Employment of the Soldier.-None who have not experienced it for themselves can form any conception of the frightful ennui of a soldier's life in India during peace. This it is, and not the intensity of the heat, nor the frequency of disease and death, which renders life a burden often so difficult to bear. Any remedies for this state will prove one of the greatest blessings to the soldier, while at the same time they will operate as the most certain prophylactics against disease and intemperance. The Indian Government cannot be said to have been altogether remiss on this score. Regimental libraries and racket-courts are almost universal at the European stations. These provisions are, however, inadequate. Many of our soldiers are unable to read, while the racket-courts afford no protection from the sun, and the game of rackets is too fatiguing and trying to the constitution in India. Mr. Jeffreys points out that many of the soldiers have been originally artisans, and proposes to establish workshops for turning, punching, and other purposes. The formation of experimental farms would also afford occupation to many, and would be one of the most certain ways for developing the natural resources of the country. The profits from these various sources might be employed in defraying the necessary expenses, while the surplus might accumulate as an addition to the soldiers' future pensions. Few English soldiers would sit idle with such opportunities for action before them. Golf and billiards are spoken of as suitable games in preference to rackets.

VII. On the hopeful encouragement of British soldiers serving in India.-Under this head we find some suggestions which are perhaps more desirable than practicable. According to Mr. Jeffreys, the English soldier ought not to be kept in India against his inclination :

"Military service in the ranks in India can never be in a just and safe position until its fundamental condition shall be an engagement, in the name of India, that the recruit shall be replaced at the home from which he was invited out, should he at the end of a year or two's trial find the service unacceptable or disappointing to him. Until this is conceded, it is mockery, and something worse, to tell him that he entered upon the engagement voluntarily with his eyes open."

It is also recommended that after a service of twenty years he should be entitled to a pension of 401. or 50l. a year.

Mr. Jeffreys is also a strong advocate for introducing African troops into India, as a measure calculated to diminish the present enormous expenditure of British life.

The appendix contains much and varied and useful information upon subjects pertaining to the social and political economy of British India, and is well deserving of an attentive perusal.

The brief sketch which we have given will afford some idea of the numerous and varied topics discussed by the author. It is to be hoped that amidst the many changes and reforms which will soon be introduced into British India by its new rulers, Mr. Jeffreys' valuable suggestions will receive the attention which they deserve.

Dr. Norman Chevers, although comparatively a young officer, has long held a distinguished position in the service to which he belongs. The work before us is the result of great labour and research, and contains much valuable statistical information bearing upon the sanitary condition of the European soldier in India. His remarks have reference to the following main points of inquiry:-1. The amount of mortality and sickness among our troops; 2, the causes upon which this destruction of health and life depends; and 3, the modes of checking or removing those causes.

Since the commencement of the present century the average annual rate of mortality (in hospital), from all causes, among the men of H.M. and H.E.I.C.'s European forces in the three presidencies of India, has been 62.45 in the thousand, which is nearly twice as heavy as that which obtains among the general population of Liverpool