The commissioner in his last report observes:

There is still the same tendency to change teachers which has been noticed before, nearly one-third of the whole number in the State having changed their location during the year. If now we drop out of our calculation the towns where the town system prevails, we find that nearly one-half of the teachers in the remaining towns, where the district system holds sway, are changed during the year. Is it any wonder that the results of the schools are sometimes poor and discreditable? I am more inclined to think that the wonder should be that they have accomplished anything. Surely there is an evil here which demands immediate attention, and it seems very clear to me that the remedy lies along the line of a change in the manner of employing the teachers, also of determining their fitness.

From every point of view and from every consideration which looks to securing a thorough and business-like administration of the affairs of the schools, there is a united demand that the business of selecting and hiring teachers be placed in the hands of but one party instead of two as it is now, and that this appointing power be as far removed as possible from all liabilities to be unduly warped or influenced by improper motives. The other point, that of the determination of the qualifications of the teacher, must be reached by means of a system of State certificates, which shall be issued upon the two distinct bases of scholarship and successful experience. These two alterations in the laws would immediately tend to produce a higher standard of character and ability among the teachers and also a more permanent and satisfactory tenure of position.

A careful examination of the statistics relating to the education of the teachers shows a general advance over the report of last year. It is especially gratifying to note that the largest increase in any one grade is in the number of those who have had a normal school training, a little more than 25 per cent. of the whole number having had that preparation for their work. Comparing still further this number with the ratio of normal school graduates to the number of new teachers, which is less than one-fifth, we see that the great body of normal graduates hold to their work more steadfastly than others. This, of course, should be so, but we are especially pleased to note that the fact is in confirmation of the theory. This is probably due, in the first place, to the fact that they are retained in their positions owing to the excellence of their work, and, secondly, because they have a professional spirit which animates them and tends to keep them in its active pursuit.

Hon. E. E. Higbee, superintendent of public instruction for Pennsylvania, discussing the status of the teaching force of his State, observes:

It is no easy task to supply with a competent teaching force a State like ours, where more than twenty-two thousand teachers are constantly required to keep the schools in operation. When we bear in mind our present low average of salaries (males, $37.28; females, $29.22) and the uncertain tenure of office, both of which deter young men and women either from entering the profession or from remaining loug therein, we have reason to congratulate ourselves that the needed supply is so promptly met and that the degree of attainment and professional skill is so high as it is.

For our general school work we get but very few teachers from our colleges. In very many of our high schools and in our State normal schools, we find, it is true, college graduates doing very efficient work, but in our other schools, where the primary grades demand most attention and where the highest professional skill is required that the foundation may be firm and a right impulse and tendency be given for the whole subsequent work, we have to rely upon resources within the public school system itself and not upon any helps which may come from abroad. On this account our State normal schools are a necessity as a constitutive part of the public school work, without which, indeed, the whole interest could have no safe warrant of self perpetuation. Their challenge to the legislature should be that they are a necessary part of the public school system of the State; that a proper supply of well trained professional teachers will be impossible without them; and that the State ought, as other States are doing, so far to maintain them as to make them the most efficient possible in their special work.

The report of Hon. Henry Raab, superintendent of public instruction, Illinois, presents very full statistics of the teaching force of that State. The collection of these statistics is due to Hon. W. L. Pillsbury, the assistant superintendent, who says: From an analysis of the tabulated results of the investigation it appears:

(1) With reference to the nativity of the teachers employed in the State, that 60 per cent. of the whole number were born in the State; but of the men teaching in graded schools the larger number were natives of other States or countries.

(2) With reference to age, that the teachers of the graded schools averaged about 5 years older than the teachers in the ungraded schools. Seven and one-half per

cent. of the teachers were minors; but in 44 counties all and in the State 93 per cent. of the minors were employed in the ungraded schools.

(3) With reference to experience: Under this head it should be observed that the way in which the statements were taken gives substantially the experience at the beginning of the school year, and the time taught during the year added would raise the average experience about 8 months for graded school teachers and about 54 months for teachers in ungraded schools, making the averages for the State about as follows: Average for male teachers in graded schools, 81.5 months; average for female teachers in graded schools, 59.5 months; average for male teachers in ungraded schools, 34.5 months; average for female teachers in ungraded schools, 21.5 months.

(4) The following shows the percentage of those who, at the beginning of the year, had had no previous experience: Men in graded schools, 45, or 4.5 per cent.; women in graded schools, 406, or 8.9 per cent.; men in ungraded schools, 1,050, or 20.4 per cent.; women in ungraded schools, 2,125, or 29.8 per cent.

The following shows those who had not taught more than ten months, including beginners: Men in graded schools, 102, or 10 per cent.; women in graded schools, 976, or 21.3 per cent.; men in ungraded schools, 2,101, or 41 per cent. ; women in ungraded schools, 4,036, or 56.5 per cent.

It is evident that the number who have chosen teaching as a profession is very small. It appears, too, that of the 3,626 beginners 87.6 per cent. were employed in the ungraded schools, and of the 7,227 whose experience did not exceed ten months, including beginners, 85 per cent. were employed in the ungraded schools, and that they were one-half of the teachers of these schools.

(5) With reference to the training of teachers: The whole number who had received special training was but 2,388, or 13.4 per cent. Teachers who had attended some school for professional training were distributed among the four classes of teachers as follows: Men in graded schools, 236, or 22.8 per cent.; women in graded schools, 991, or 21.6 per cent.; men in ungraded schools, 555, or 10.8 per cent.; women in ungraded schools, 606, or 8.5 per cent. It is shown that 9,055, or 50.6 per cent., of the teachers had received secondary instruction. Of these, 5,344, or 59 per cent., had received such instruction in the high schools.

The teachers who had received secondary instruction were employed as follows: Men in graded schools, 620, or 60 per cent.; women in graded schools, 3, 103, or 67.2 per cent.; men in ungraded schools, 2,200, or 42.9 per cent.; women in ungraded schools, 3,232, or 45.3 per cent.; 6,847, or 38.3 per cent., of the teachers had received neither secondary nor normal school instruction. These were divided among the four classes of teachers as follows: Men in graded schools, 187, or 18 per cent.; women in graded schools, 914, or 20 per cent.; men in ungraded schools, 2,338, or 45.6 per cent.; women in ungraded schools, 3,408, or 47.7 per cent. Of this class of teachers, 1,755, or 25.6 per cent. of them, were beginners, and these untrained teachers comprised 48.3 per cent. of all beginners. The men and women of this class, viz, untrained beginners, were distributed as follows: Men in graded schools, 15, or .8 per cent. ; women in graded schools, 112, or 6.4 per cent. ; men in ungraded schools, 503, or 28.7 per cent.; women in ungraded schools, 1,125, or 64.1 per cent. Compared with the whole number of teachers in each class there were belonging to the class of untrained beginners: Men in graded schools, 1.5 per cent.; women in graded schools, 2.4 per cent.; men in ungraded schools, 9.8 per cent.; women in ungraded schools, 15.8 per cent.

As was to be expected, the number of teachers who had enjoyed superior instruction was not large. The number of men and women of this class and per cent. of them employed in each class of schools were as follows: Men in graded schools, 302, or 33.5 per cent.; women in graded schools, 300, or 33.2 per cent.; men in ungraded schools, 212, or 23.5 per cent.; women in ungraded schools, 89, or 9.8 per cent. And, comparing with the whole number of teachers in each class, there were belonging to this class: Men in graded schools, 29.3 per cent.; women in graded schools, 6.5 per cent.; men in ungraded schools, 4.1 per cent.; women in ungraded schools, 1.2 per cent. Here again, as among those who have attended normal schools and schools of secondary instruction, the graded schools get by far the larger proportion of the graduates.

RURAL SCHOOL-HOUSES.

Within a few years there has been marked improvement in country school-houses, and much greater attention than formerly has been paid to the sanitary conditions of the same and to the general care of buildings and premises.

The following descriptions of school-houses recently built answer a number of fnquiries received at this Office. “A” is located in Litchfield, Connecticut; the description is taken from the report of the secretary of the State board of education, Hon. Charles D. Hine, for 1884. "B" is located in Franklin County, Ohio; the

description is taken from the report of the State commissioner, Hon. Le Roy D. Brown, for 1884:

"A."-The outside dimensions are 20 by 30; 11-foot posts. It is designed to seat twenty-four scholars. There will be floor room enough for six or eight more, but the room is not intended for that.

There are two blackboards, or black walls, one on each end, 12 feet long, 3 feet wide. The contract for building in good and complete style was $600, cellar and all. The lot cost $50, seats $50, outbuildings $50, and other minor expenses about $50, making total cost about $800. It is built of the best material and every way first class. The school room is 19 by 194, plastered two coats, wainscoted up 3 feet. The boys and girls' entries are separate, each 9 by 7 feet, and ceiled with spruce. The closet between these is to store maps or library. The outbuildings are 50 feet in rear of the school-house.

"B."-This building is built of brick and stone, with pressed brick arches, slate roof, and slate blackboards. It is a one-room building, with rear and left hand light; seating capacity for from forty-eight to fifty pupils. The flues are laid for ventilating stoves by taking fresh air from the outside by a register in the floor directly under the stove. There are two flues in the chimneys, one for the smoke and the other for ventilation, with register at floor line. Cost, $2,000.

INSTRUCTION IN TEMPERANCE, HYGIENE, &C.

The evils resulting from the use of alcoholic liquors are so terrible that all practicable repressive measures should receive the support of the people. How far instruction in the physiological effects of these beverages will prevent their use is not easy to determine. The very general conviction that such instruction will act as a restraint certainly ought not to be disregarded. Several States, viz, New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode Island, New York, and Michigan, have by special enactment made such instruction obligatory. In some other States, as, for instance, Massachusetts, instruction in physiology, hygiene, and temperance has long been required. During the past year an effort was made by the Massachusetts board of education to learn to what extent the description of the physiological effects of alcohol is included in such instruction in the normal schools of the State. The principals of the several schools were requested to furnish to the board outlines of their respective work, which request was promptly complied with. From these outlines, it appears that more or less attention is given to the subject by all the schools; and, in a majority of them, the instruction indicated is fairly adequate to the importance of the subject and the circumstances under which it is given.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE EDUCATIONAL CONDITION OF THE UNION.
NEW ENGLAND STATES-MAINE.

Expenditure for schools, school-houses, furniture, and supervision increased here considerably in 1882-'83 and again in 1883-84; more schools had higher studies under better teachers, stimulated to good work by better pay, and in city schools and free high schools there are evidences of fair advance in both years. But the number of school districts, perhaps from eonsolidation of small ones, is becoming fewer; youth of school age have been lessening in number, with exceptions in only two years since 1870; and the length of school terms is shortening by about a day each year.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Gains over 1881-'82 appear in both the succeeding years as respects enrolment in public and in private schools, in the number of schools and the time that they were open, in the pay of teachers, and in the general expenditure for public schools. In 1882-53 there was also a considerable advance in the average attendance, which, however, fell off again by 2,348 in the next year, apparently in part through a transfer of pupils from public to private or church schools. In the fact that school districts were less numerous there is also evidence of gain, as the number of such districts, small and poor in many places, has been a great hindrance to educational success. The superintendent sces encouragement, too, in an annually increased supply of funds for schools, in a demand for experienced teachers, in a greater appreciation of improved methods of instruction, and in a fostering of these through educational meetings and institutes.

VERMONT.

In both years here enrolment in public schools and average attendance in them fell off from what it had been in the two preceding years; but the per cent. of enrolment to school youth remained still very fair (73.23 and 73.68) in view of the broad limits of school age, and the per cent. of average attendance to such youth (46.36 and 47.86) was also fair for a State often swept during school times by bleak wintry winds. School districts in both years diminished, but this was largely from abandonment of the poor district system for the better town one, in which fairly graded schools come often in place of miserable ungraded ones; and hence, with 3 fewer schools, there were 33 graded ones. Expenditure for public schools increased considerably in both years, and teachers, both male and female, were stimulated by better average pay.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Children of school age (5-15) increased in this Commonwealth,in 1882-'83 by 8,082 from the number reported in 1881-'82, and, as usual, a much larger number than the youth of school age was brought into the public schools, the per cent. of enrolment to school youth being 101.95. The next year, when 6,736 more school youth were reported, the enrolment rose to 6,140 beyond that in the year before, making a per cent. of 101.73 to the whole number of school age. The per cent. of average attendance to average membership and of average attendance to school youth (89.47 and 89.51 in the former case, 73.47 and 73.82 in the latter) is, in its way, equally remarkable. Adding the attendance in State charitable and reformatory institutions, that in the numerous evening schools, and that in academies and private schools, the educational status is exceedingly high.

RHODE ISLAND.

The secretary of the State board of education thinks that the general condition of the schools is most hopeful, and the figures of his reports for 1882-83 and 1883-'84 appear to justify his judgment, for the per cent. of enrolled pupils to. youth of school age rose from 73.07 in the former year to 77.54 in the latter, and the per cent. of daily attendance to such youth from 48.89 to 52.24, the number in all schools, private and public, coming in both years close up to the whole number of school age. A new compulsory law, passed in 1883, had, doubtless, some effect on this increase of attendance; but the State school commissioner thinks that it was much more the result of better teaching, increased attractiveness in the schools, and wider interest in education.

CONNECTICUT.

In 1882-'83, with more children for instruction, there was a somewhat smaller enrolment in public schools, with a smaller per cent. of attendance in all schools than in 1881-82, but average attendance increased by 1,437, total attendance in all schools by 1,213, a new and elegant State Normal School was built, and great improvements in school buildings at Bridgeport, Hartford, New Haven, and elsewhere were made at a cost of $565,752.

The next year, with a very small increase of school youth and a diminution in the number attending other than public schools, there was an increase of 2,843 in public school enrolment and of 1,652 in average attendance in the winter term, children in no school diminishing by 335. Then, too, though it was a year of calamity in business, 5 more public schools were opened, 18 more graded schools were taught, the departments in these numbering 44, and the State school property was rated almost $1,000,000 higher.

MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES-NEW YORK.

The school year 1883-84 was an exceptional one in this State, in that it was shorter by about 6 weeks than usual, owing to the fact that the legislature in 1883 changed the day of its close from September 30 to August 20. This will account for a falling

off in certain statistical details which, from their nature, are necessarily affected by time. In particulars not thus affected, the reports show decided improvement over the year preceding, while the public school work in 1882-'83 had also improved in many respects over that of 1881-'82. With about 41,000 fewer pupils enrolled in 1883-'84, the average daily attendance was 13,000 greater, the per cent. of attendance based on enrolment was greater by 3.60, and the same, based on the whole number of youth of school age, was .40 of 1 per cent. greater. More teachers were employed 28 weeks or over, although the whole number was less, and more attended the institutes. Over $177,000 more were expended for sites, buildings, and furniture, the estimated value of all public school property reaching nearly $32,000,000.

NEW JERSEY.

During 1882-83 there were in this State over 349,000 youth of legal school age (5-18), of whom nearly 212,000 were enrolled in public schools and nearly 120,000 were in average daily attendance, the per cent. of public school enrolment to the number of school youth being 60.69 and that of average attendance to school population 34.22. Counting the enrolment in private and church schools, there were 260,612, or 74.62 per cent., engaged in study during some portion of the year. The records for 1883-84 having been consumed in a conflagration at the State House, figures for illustration of educational progress in that year are wanting.

PENNSYLVANIA.

The public school statistics for 1882-'83 and 1883-'84 show an advance during the latter year in nearly all particulars. Over 8,000 more youth were enrolled in the schools and over 9,000 more were in average daily attendance, the enrolment in schools other than public having, meanwhile, decreased by 2,527. The proportion of public school pupils in average attendance to the number enrolled was 65.80, to the number of youth of school age (census of 1880) was 44.69, a slight increase in both items over the figures of 1882-83. Nearly 20,000 free schools were taught in 2,241 school districts, 8,345 of the schools being graded, an increase for the year in districts and in schools, both graded and ungraded. Over nine millions and a half were expended for all public school purposes, the increase for the year being more than $210,000. Still, the average monthly pay of a large majority of the teachersthe women- —was over half a dollar less than the previous year (that of the men employed having advanced $1.44), and this notwithstanding a decided advance in the number of teachers employed continuously and in normal school graduates.

DELAWARE.

The State superintendent reported in 1884 that the public sentiment in favor of the support of free schools was stronger than it had ever before been; that the public press and the leading men of all parties and creeds acknowledged and insisted on the duty of the State to provide a good common school education for the children of all classes. The statistics show an enrolment of about 31,000 pupils in the public schools in 1884, including schools for colored youth, a gain of about 4,300 in two years, the whole school population of both races (numbering a little over 40,500) having only increased by about 2,000. The exact number of white children enrolled was 27,037, a gain of 3,587 over 1882; the average daily attendance of the same class (17,952) increased 2,396. The length of term remained about the same in both classes of schools, that for white children numbering 157 days, that for colored 104. The whole cost of sustaining the white schools was $206,918; that for the colored schools, $8,243.

MARYLAND.

About 55 per cent. of the youth of school age in this State were enrolled in public schools, about 28 per cent. of them being in average daily attendance. The number enrolled (170,393) included an increase during the year of 8,634; that in average attend