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THE

GRESHAM

LIFE ASSURANCE SOCIETY.

ESTABLISHED 1848.

Head Office-ST. MILDRED'S HOUSE, POULTRY, LONDON, E.C.

FUNDS, 1884.

Realised Assets

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Life Assurance and Annuity Funds
Annual Income

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£3,491,376 £3,391,789 £685,369 Moderate Rates of Premium, Liberal Scale of Annuities. Loans granted upon Security of Freehold, Copyhold, and Leasehold Property, Life Interests, and Reversions; also to Corporate and other Public Bodies, upon Security of Rates, &c.

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BONUS

YEAR, 1885.

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POLICIES effected before the 1st July 1885 on the profit tables, with annua! premiums, will participate in the Bonus to be declared
in the manner prescribed by the regulations of the Society.
JOSEPH ALLEN, Secretary.
Prospectus, Reports, and Proposal Forms can be obtained on application to the Society's Agents and Branch Offices, or to
JOSEPH ALLEN, Secretary.

NORTH BRITISH AND MERCANTILE INSURANCE COMPANY

INCORPORATED BY ROYAL CHARTER AND SPECIAL ACTS OF PARLIAMENT. Authorised Capital, £3,000,000. Subscribed Capital, £2,500,000. Paid-up Capital, £625,000. Chairman-JOHN WHITE CATER, ESQ. Deputy-Chairman-CHARLES MORRISON, ESQ. Manager of Fire Department-G. H. BURNett. Manager of Life Department and Actuary-HENRY COCKBURN. Secretary-F. W. LANCE.

Foreign Sub-Manager-PHILIP WINSOR.

FIRE DEPARTMENT.

The Net FIRE FUNDS, irrespective of the Paid-up Capital, now amount to £1,592,235 5s. 2d.

LIFE DEPARTMENT.

The LIFE FUND now amounts to £3,340,918 11s. 2d. The ANNUITY FUND now amounts to £500,275 17s. 11d. THE PRINCIPLES on which this Company is conducted combine the system of Mutual Assurance with the safety of a large Protecting Capital and Accumulated Funds, and thus afford all the facilities and advantages which can prudently be offered by any Life Assurance Office. NINETY PER CENT. of the WHOLE PROFITS is divided among the Assurers on the Participating Scale. The PROFITS are divided every Five Years. POLICIES are INDISPUTABLE after Five Years. ANNUITIES of all kinds are granted.

Prospectuses and every Information can be obtained at the Chief Offices

LONDON: 61 THREADNEEDLE ST., E.C. WEST END OFFICE, 8, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W. EDINBURGH, 64, PRINCES ST.

BRITISH EMPIRE MUTUAL LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANY

NEW BRIDGE STREET, LONDON, E.C. ESTABLISHED 1847. EMPOWERED BY SPECIAL ACT OF PARLIAMENT.

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This Company being established on the MUTUAL PRINCIPLE, all Profits belong to Policy-holders. The average Cash Bonus (Triennially) exceeds 20 per cent. on the Premiums paid. £4,793,942 Paid in Claims. £1,230,133 £200,000 Total amount of Profits already Dis£1,028,215 tributed amongst Policy-holders £847,000 Prospectuses, with Copies of the last Report and Balance Sheet, Board of Trade Returns, &c, can be obtained from any Agent of the Comtany, or will be sent upon application to EDWIN BOWLEY, Secretary.

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INTERMEDIATE,
TE,} 2s. 6d. per Dozen.

Natural Soil to grow them in, with some Hints on Management, free on rails here at 3d. per
dozen lbs. weight.
Customers who have not been successful with them can have a dozen sent free on receipt of 3 stamps.
"WILDFLOWER," Lindow Common, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

OBJECTS FOR
FOR THE MICROSCOPE.

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The STOKES-WATSON SPARK APPARATUS, to show the combustion of Metals by the Electric Spark with the
Microscope or Micro-Spectroscope, as exhibited before the Royal Society. Price £2 2s. or complete with Coil and Battery, £3 10s.
40,000 First-class Specimens, illustrative of every Branch of Study.
WATSON & SONS' 1-15th in. HOMOGENEOUS IMMERSION OBJECTIVE, £5 5s.
This Glass is unsurpassed at the Price.

NEW CLASSIFIED LIST OF OBJECTS (Including the Stock of Mr. E. WHEELER, late of Holloway).
ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE OF MICROSCOPES AND APPARATUS.
Either of the above sent Post Free to any part of the world on application to

W. WATSON & SONS, 313, HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON, W.C.

Opticians to Her Majesty's Government.

Established 1837.

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UR plate exhibits simply the external character and appearance of an elegant seed, as seen with a moderate power under the microscope. From this aspect the subject is introduced, to invite attention to an attractive class of easily-procured objects, showing elegance of form and colour. The microscopist, however, contemplates a seed with deeper significance, its hidden mystery, its absolute totality, an independent whole, involving an embryo lying dormant (often for years), but ready, under favourable surroundings, to start a new plant true to its species. At such a point it may be interesting to devote a few preliminary lines in an attempt to describe what may be seen of this compacted quiescence when set in action by the force of germination, and revealed by the instrument.

In a dry, intact seed, the embryo of the future plant is hidden beyond the power of observation, but when subjected to external influences alterations commence. At this stage, examination leads the imagination to what may have been the primary condition; a germ, enclosed in a simple and minute cylindrical body of dense organisation hardly presenting a trace of complicated or differentiated structures, and only when influenced by moisture and moderate heat the mysterious principle "germination" sets in ; changes appear by the gradual absorption and elimination of the surrounding and protecting provision; the embryo then breaks through the No. 246.-JUNE 1885.

integuments and acquires a distinct vascular, tubular, and cellular organisation; this process, or develop ment, may be observed. A grain of corn, although partaking more of the character of a fruit than a seed, is peculiarly adapted for experiment; by soaking in water for a few hours germination is quickly promoted; to see the acme of interest, it must not be carried too far, in fact, just started; thin transparent sections cut from the centre of the grain in the direction of the axis, and placed under a thin glass cover in a drop of glycerine jelly or chloride of calcium, will exhibit developments which may be assumed to be analogous to the germination of other seeds; a minute sheath, or sac, formed by the single cotyledon, which represents the undeveloped leaves, will be seen, enclosing the plumule, the rudiment of the ascending growth; outside the sheath, the radicle, the nascent descending axis. These organs, still confined within the seed, or at least, only just breaking through the pericarp or outer skin, are sustained by the exhaustion of the albumen of which the greater part of the seed consists, stored in cells-reservoirs of nutriment, starches, oils, and other matters in varied combinations. Cuttings from grains, soaked in water, taken at successive periods, exhibit phases or progresses of development. But, from an embryological point of view, microscopical interest is lost after the initial process is past; the albumen cells then become exhausted and effete, and the minute stem and root push forth and assume the character of a plant, entirely dependent on external resources. A transverse section cut through the point of a germinating grain shows the cotyledon like a pale oval border, surrounding the minute and compacted convoluted tissues, which afterwards become the leaves of the plumule.

The gay and persistent blossoms of the somewhat weedy shrub-like Amaranthus caudatus (love-liesbleeding) are prominently attractive in old-fashioned gardens; the fruit is a utricle, a seed vessel with a loose rind, or pericarp; rubbed off, or winnowed, it reveals the object, as seen in the illustration; in

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colour, of delicate intermingled pinks and yellows with the embryo curved, like an annulus round the circumference of a central store of farinaceous albumen; the object well displays the hilum, or scar of union with the mother plant.

The integuments of seeds are composed of structu

ral membranes of significant interest; after soaking, B

and in some cases boiling, they may be teased out, and excellent preparations secured; the disclosure of spiral tissue in the testa of the seeds of Cobœa, and Collomia, an oft-repeated demonstration, still retains its old interest; a thin particle cut from the surface, placed in a drop of water, between glasses, will disclose positive action; cells bursting, and imprisoned coils darting forth in all directions.

Of seeds, in their simple and natural integrity, as objects of beauty, may be mentioned: poppy and mignonette, showing reticulations; Eccremocarpus scaber, with membranous wings; this seed mounted in balsam is a fine polariscope object. Antirrhinum majus (snap-dragon) roughly corrugated; the seeds of the carrot have curious radiating processes; those of wild indigenous plants are always attractive, and exhibit marked peculiarities; Goose-grass, covered with equidistant hooks; Burr-reed with four ribs running longitudinally, terminating in projections, each armed with a double row of barbs; even chickweed has a spinous seed, worth looking at. As regards configuration the most striking are the reniform, and the obovate, as in the larkspur, marked with prominent irregular ridges.

The following carefully selected list of microscopic seeds, as showing peculiarities in great variety, is extracted from the "Micrographical Dictionary" (Van Voorst).

Hypericum, Lychnis, Stellaria, Reseda, Lepidium, Nigella, Erica, Anagallis, Orobanche, Linaria, Chironia, Gentiana, Datura, Nicotiana, Petunia, Sedum, Saxifraga, Capparis, Elatine, Gesnera, Begonia, Delphinium, Scrophularia, Antirrhinum, Maurandya, Sphenogyna, Hyoscyamus, Sempervivum, Silene, Dianthus, Papaver, Digitalis.

Seeds perfectly dry and clean, require little or no preparation, as opaque objects; the beauty of many, as Drosera, Hydrangea, Pyrola, Orchis, and very minute specimens, is much enhanced by mounting in balsam in a cell, after a washing in spirit of turpentine, in this way, the edges or any projecting parts, as hairs, spines, corrugations, hooks, &c., are within reach of the dark ground illumination, which added to condensed light from above, brings out their perfect beauty, with binocular vision, presenting a solidity eminently adapting them for artistic study and practice as models of form, colour, and shadow. Crouch End.

A NEW Volcano is said to have been discovered in or near the government of Smolensk in Russia, and to have been showing signs of activity.

ARTISTIC GEOLOGY.

FFESTINIOG AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD.

By T. MELLARD READE, F.G.S., &c.

[Continued from p. 113.]

WLCH Drws Ardudwy. We may devote a good long day to this excursion, which will, with fine weather, well repay the geological student no less than the lover of scenery. Taking an early train to Trawsfynydd on the railway to Bala, we get on to the main road from Maentwrog to Dolgelly. About two miles from the station, and about half-a-mile before turning off to the right, on the east side of the road, is an outcrop of the Cambrian rocks, here of a blue slaty nature, the direction of dip being from west to east, which it will be well to bear in mind. Turning off along an unfrequented road, we cross the Afon Eden by a foot bridge, and about a mile onwards we cross an extensive surface of bare rock having a dip about nine degrees north-west; but it varies, as the surface is part of an anticlinal curve. No glacial striæ are to be seen, but the smoothness of the rock may nevertheless be due to glacial action.

It may be as well here to observe that we have been walking along, and then across a valley denuded out of an anticlinal and situated at a very considerable altitude, as any one who walks from Maentwrog will find out before he gets to Trawsfynydd. This valley is a wide trough, running north and south, occupied entirely by Cambrian rocks, out of which, indeed, it has been scooped.

The eastern side is for a considerable distance bounded by a fault which must pass very near to Trawsfynydd station, though I did not see it. This elevated valley is remarkable, inasmuch as it is divided into two watersheds, the southern part being drained by the Afon Eden towards Dolgelly into the Mawddach, and the northern by the Afon Pryser, which rises in the Silurians to the east, and flows, after passing round the village of Trawsfynydd to the estuary below Maentwrog, discharging over the beautiful falls of the Rhiadr Ddu before alluded to.

From the smoothed rocks we left off at to describe the valley, there is a gradual ascent to the Drws Ardudwy, which is a wild pass between Rhinog Mawr and Rhinog Fach, two grand Cambrian mountains. As we traverse the pass, or the "gates" of the Ardudwy, we are going in a south-westerly direction. From the time of entrance between the Rhinogs to the summit of the pass, we are still rapidly ascending. Beyond the summit we may rest to survey the prospect, taking care to have a good big block of stone behind us, for the wind blows keenly through this mountain channel. Looking back, that is to the north-east, we have a sublime view of the bare and somewhat terraced flank of Rhinog Fawr. The grandeur of the scene is due to the enormous mass of rock which is almost devoid of vegetation, and the

blocks of grit scattered profusely about and around us in wild confusion.

Examining the stone, after fracture with the hammer, we find it is a bluish-grey grit, largely composed of felspathic materials and almost crystalline. Indeed, at first sight, one would take some of the Cambrian beds to be felstone, but a careful examination will show the rounded grains of which it is composed, and assure us of its clastic character. Some of the blocks which have been detached from the precipices above are well worthy of study, as the grit contains in some cases veins of slate, usually of a greenish colour, which by weathering exhibit the cleavage distinctly, though the grit is unaffected by it. In one block I counted no less than six bands of slate, all cleaved in the same direction, the intermediate grit showing no signs of cleavage. In another case the weathering brought out current bedding in the grit itself, though a more unlikely material to display this structure it would be difficult to conceive.

There is no doubt that geology tends to the enjoyment of scenery, for many years ago, before I had practically worked at the science, I visited this spot and made a sketch of the pass, approaching it from Llanbedr; but it did not yield me the same pleasure then as on my last visit, even discounting the fact that on the first occasion a horridly cold wind was blowing through the pass, and on the last the day was sunny and bright.

After lingering to enjoy this wild scenery we had to turn our faces homewards, but not before being passed by three travellers, one a lady with approved Alpine-stock, who walked briskly and in good style through the pass. I could not help admiring the swing at which they were going, and watched them as far as the eye could follow, curiously wondering in what way the scenery affected them. Their feelings, however, were a sealed book, for they looked not to the right hand nor to the left, nor heavenwards, towards the summits of the mountains. They were evidently "doing their distance," and could not be troubled with such frivolities as scenery! Still, no doubt, they expatiated on the grandeur of the scenery when they arrived at their destination,—and had time.

The sun was now getting lower in the heavens, and the Rhinogs with the range extending to Diphwys was dyeing deep purple, showing sharply in outline against the western sky. The structure was well displayed; long low curves ending in scarps taking a direction a little eastward of north, showing that the strata is not bent merely into parallel folds, but has a curvature in a minor degree along its major axis. Arriving at the Dolgelly road, we sat down to survey and sketch Cader Idris. Lighted up by the afternoon sun, the long escarpment showed every detail of its furrowed side, exhibiting a marked contrast to the forms of the Cambrian mountains we had been studying. The golden face and purple

shadows of Cader were appropriately set off by a foreground of bright green turf, with a little farmhouse and group of trees to the right distinctly outlined against the mountain background. Arrived at the Trawsfynydd station, while waiting for the train we had ample time to watch the soft rosy light of evening overspread the scene, while the mountains beyond the Rhinogs shone in light golden tint, intensified by the dark deep purple of the Cambrian range to the right. This was truly, though gained by considerable walking, a red-letter day.

FEATURES IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF

FFESTINIOG.

Next to Moelwyn, the most prominent objects near Ffestiniog are the two Manods. One is struck by the contrast of form they exhibit as compared with Moelwyn and other Snowdonian mountains. A geological examination shows that they are in greater part carved out of massive felspathic porphyry, estimated by Ramsay at 1500 feet thick. This rock, as may be seen on a smaller scale, weathers into rounded forms, the Manods being, in fact, bossy hills formed by denudation from a bed of igneous rock, ejected during the deposition of the Llandeilo beds, upon the lower beds of which they repose. These beds are altered by contact, whereas the slaty beds above are unaltered. (See section, p. 54. Memoir of Geo. of North Wales.)

An instructive example of the rounded form into which this rock weathers may be seen in a hill near the slate quarry above Llyn Morwynion, from which lake the water supply of Ffestiniog is obtained. A climb up to Llyn-y-Manod, a small tarn lying in the hollow between the two Manods, will repay the exertion. Good views over Cardigan Bay and towards Harlech Castle are obtained. The mountain is seen to be covered with angular blocks of stone, derived from its own mass. The rock weathers with a rough white crust forming with the lichens thereon a beautiful gray tint in the distance, with the faintest dash of purple therein. Underneath the crust is a reddish-brown iron stain, which no doubt is washed out of the outer skin of the stone. The talus of broken blocks are not bad climbing, being filled in between with soil and turf, but unfortunately we had not time to get to the summit. When we started on this journey, clouds and mists covered the vale, which, gradually lifting, showed the bright green vegetation bathed in the sunlight below.

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FERTILISATION OF ORCHIS MASCULA.

By EDWARD MALAN. [Continued from p. 102.]

THE tubers, I believe, behave pretty much as I de

scribed. Most of the plants that I have taken up in April, have been about 2 inches below the surface. In August it is exceedingly difficult to find the tubers, as there is absolutely nothing above ground to assist your search, and although I have frequently marked the place and position of plants in April, yet I have been disappointed when I returned four months later. You may dig, and you may dig, but nothing will you find. Why is this? Clearly the tubers descend; and the reason of this descent is to prevent premature germination, which, if allowed to proceed without the proper interval of rest, considerably weakens the plant of the following year. The case of the tuber that I mentioned as being deeply planted, was an experiment, and it was purposely prevented from rising, by being kept at a uniform depth of 3 inches below the surface. The result was very disastrous to the plant, but the new tubers grew better when the leaves were above ground. The drawings which I made at the time can be seen.

Lastly, as to the breaking of the stem affecting the flower of the new tuber. Here G. M. has not quoted my words correctly. Breaking the stem certainly cripples the plant of the following year, and prevents its flowering; at least, I have only observed one exception to this, and the notes that I made can be had for the asking. But I did not say that I saw a perfectly healthy plant minus its tubers: I said tuber. This rather alters G. M.'s case against me. Now let me go out and select a plant of O. mascula and let me explain what I mean. [One hour occupied in finding a plant.] This one that I have found (March 9th, 1885) will just do. Clear away the soil carefully, and do not break a single root. Then proceed to vivisect the victim. Just place your knife, my classic Ajax, where it will cut sharpest, and divide the plant in half, leaves, tubers and all. There, the thing is done, and this drawing is a faithful representation of the result. We will call the left-hand tuber (i.e. the tuber of 1884-5) A ; and we will call the right-hand tuber (i.e. the tuber of 1885-6) B; evidently the plant arises from A; evidently B has no independent existence as yet. Accordingly A answers to the old tuber of my description, and B answers to the new. be no mistake now.

There can

Last autumn, while men were slumbering and sleeping and caring very little for this particular tuber, the silent processes of life were at work, and A took courage and started the thing going. First of all the embryo, containing the leaves and spike, germinated little by little, drawing upon A for its resources, in this the first stage of its growth. The embryo is now the plant on the table before me.

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