Iwould not hear. And what was the burden of his

cry?

It was social reform-nay, more, it was an entire social revolution, a demand for a new state of society altogether, as described in the "City of the Sun."

The proposals for social improvement are such as may be expected from a man whose experience of life had been gathered within the narrow confines of a monastery under strict Dominican discipline, and who aims at social improvements by committing the fate of mankind to an ecclesiastical hierarchy acting according to scientific principles. In Campanella the man of science and the Church disciplinarian meet. His Utopia is a land where the happiness of the community is brought about by a strict application of scientific rigour under ecclesiastical authority, to the conduct of government.

In his social scheme, which has been called a phantastic creation full of originality," he presents us with the picture of an ideal society where everything is ordered according to monastic rule, where life, with its alternate occupations and enjoyments, is regulated by semi-ecclesiastical and semi-philosophical superiors.

The supreme head of this communistic state is the so-called “Grand Metaphysician," who is to be the most eminent man of science, and his subordinates

are chosen equally on account of their mental and moral qualifications, as in China the mandarins or high state officials are appointed by means of competitive examinations to test their capacity. The ministers of state in the "Civitas solis" are a triumvirate of moral magnates, who bear, by way of indication of their peculiar qualities, the names of Power, Wisdom, and Love respectively. To them is committed the charge of warlike preparations, public instruction, and the material welfare of the citizens. They, again, are assisted in performing their several functions by minor officials, who, by reason of personal merit, constitute representatives of special virtues, from which they receive their respective names, such as Magnanimity, Courage, Justice, Truth, Moderation, &c. &c. In fact, the ruling powers, from the "Grand Metaphysician," who is a sort of industrial Pope, down to the lowest officers in the series, represent ideas, and form an infallible hierarchy, ruling with wisdom and unlimited power a commonwealth of equals, and endeavouring to promote truth and virtue. They have power over life and death, and may inflict the most severe punishments in case of minor offences, even corporal chastisement, where that seems necessary. In the choice of magistrates and other ministers of justice special regard is paid to personal distinction in the arts of peace and the mechanical sciences.

Those who are the greatest adepts in business, and are engaged in the most varied industries, become leaders and masters, and receive the greatest consideration.

In the "City of the Sun" people ridicule our contempt for the artisan class, as well as our overweening regard for those who are not engaged in any of the bread-winning pursuits. On the contrary, they rather despise those who live in idleness and keep a large retinue of servants to minister to their indolence and self-indulgence.

All property is held in common, and extends to all the relations of life. There are no private fortunes or homes. "The principle of property," says Campanella, "does not grow up within us naturally. It arises from the fact that we have our own homes and families. Hence egoism; for to raise one son in particular to dignities and wealth, and making him the heir of a large fortune, is weakening the public treasury, and enables one set of men to rule over another by means of their wealth and power. Again, those who are powerless, poor, or of low origin, are in danger of becoming avaricious, mean, and hypocritical."

There are public buildings in which all live together, partaking of common meals in halls provided for that purpose, and sleeping in common dormitories.

Every townland has its own public kitchen, diningrooms, granaries, and provision-magazines. Here everybody receives according to his requirements, with due regard to the ruling principles of the community—“ plain living and hard thinking.”

Education-literary, scientific, and technical-is common to all without distinction. Even women are

brought up exactly like men. But in the apportioning of work the rough occupations are assigned to the latter, and labour requiring less exertion is assigned to the former. The most hard-working, trades are held in highest esteem, and agricultural labourers proceed to their daily task in solemn procession.

Four hours of daily work, from which none are exempt, suffice for obtaining the requisites for all the members in the community. This shortening of the labour-hours has the effect of making everybody perform their task cheerfully, and so becoming most productive members of society. All work is done in groups, headed by the best workers, who become the leading kings or fathers of their companies. merce is despised, and may not be carried on within the walls of the city, for fear of corrupting the citizens; money is only used in transacting business with outsiders.

Com

Campanella was aware of the difficulty of carrying

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out his own scheme of social economy, as will appear from the following short extract taken from his work, the "City of the Sun," which, similar to the "Utopia," is written in the form of a dialogue, between an imaginary Grand Hospitaller and a Genovese Captain:

Grand Hospitaller. "But in such a state of things no one would work, since everybody would depend on the labour of the rest for his own maintenance, as Aristotle has already objected to Plato's scheme.”

Genovese Captain. "I cannot well continue this discussion, having never learnt to argue. I only assure you that the patriotism of these people is beyond all conception, and do we not know from history that the Romans despised property in proportion to their devotion to their country?"

Thus we see how Campanella tries to solve the most difficult problem of Communism by replying that people will work in the absence of selfish motives from a strong sentiment of duty and devotion to the common welfare. This argument has since become the corner-stone of successive plans of new social edifices on a communistic basis. It resolves the ancient principle that the individual must be sacrificed to the species, the person to the commonwealth, with the modern principle of voluntary self-abnegation for the public good.

Campanella had been brought up in a monastery,