it may be as well to remark that very good common English figures may be made in gutta percha; the pegs themselves should be of gutta percha, and on each end should be a figure in relief. An arithmetical appliance on this plan was made by the writer some years ago, which was very useful in enabling a sighted nurse to instruct her blind charge in the first principles of calculation. The figures were half an inch deep and three-eighths wide, and the pegs were an inch long.

TANGIBLE MAPS AND GLOBES, ETC.

Various attempts have been made to form suitable maps for the blind, the earliest recorded effort being that of Herr Weissemborg, of Mannheim. This German gentleman having lost his sight when seven years old, and finding on reaching maturity no means provided for the education of the blind, set about contriving a number of appliances to carry out that object. Among these inventions were a writing-desk, the fundamental principle of which is still the basis of similar contrivances, and an arithmetical apparatus resembling, it is said, that by Saunderson. Herr Weissemborg also conceived the idea of forming tangible maps, for which purpose he availed himself of the embroiderer's art; the boundaries being represented by narrow lines of work, the mountains by thicker lines, and towns and cities by glass or steel beads of various sizes. These maps were moderately effective, but their costliness prevented their being widely used. Since 1780 many and varied have been the exertions made in almost every country in Europe and in the United States of America, to give the sightless a cheap and easy means of studying Physical Geography; but we regret to say that the results of these efforts have proved far from satisfactory. This want of success, however, has not been caused by any inherent difficulty in the case.

but has proceeded simply, as it would appear, from the caterers not sufficiently understanding the wants of the blind in connection with tangible maps, and the means best adapted to meet those wants.

Efficient tangible maps, in addition to possessing the indispensable requisite of cheapness, must also contain the following qualities:-the land and water must be readily distinguished from each other, the courses of rivers and mountains easily traced, and the situation and relative importance of towns accurately indicated; they should also be capable of being consulted by the blind student without sighted aid. The various maps invented naturally divide themselves into two classes, viz. those which are made by hand and those printed from relief plates. In the former class, besides those made by embroidery and needlework, may be mentioned such as are formed by having the shapes of countries, etc. cut out in wood, and such as are made by having the land of an ordinary map used by the sighted, pasted upon the land of another similar map, thus causing the whole surface of the land to be raised above the water, and also enabling a sighted person easily to teach the blind.

In these maps mountains and towns are shown by brass-headed pins of different sizes, which are put through the map and clinched at the back. Maps printed in relief from plates are necessarily much cheaper than those made by hand. In general the boundaries in printed maps are indicated by raised lines, and the towns marked by dots, no distinction being usually made between land and water. In those, however, printed by Dr. Howe, of Boston, U.S., the water is raised above the land, which injurious practice has been imitated by Mr. Moon, of Brighton, in some of his productions.

The idea of water being raised above land is so unnatural, that the mind never thoroughly becomes accustomed to it, and this produces constant irritation

and uncertainty in consulting maps so arranged. The maps invented by Haüy, and still used in France, are made by hand. They are expensive and very inefficient. Herr Zeune, the director of "The Institution for the Blind" at Berlin, invented some years ago maps of very perfect construction; the various elevations on the surface of the earth being given on a regularly graduated scale: thus, if land one thousand feet above the level of the sea is represented on the map by a substance the tenth of an inch thick, land which is ten thousand feet above the level of the sea is indicated by a substance of the thickness of an inch.` The utility of this invention in the case of institutions, and for the use of pupils of the wealthy classes is undoubted, but the costliness of maps constructed on such a principle places the advantages of the system beyond the reach of the blind generally. The mode adopted by Herr Zeune is so admirable that it has been employed in common schools, and it forms perhaps the only instance in which an invention, originally intended for the blind, has proved of signal advantage to the sighted. A map of England and Wales containing many good points was issued some years ago by Mr. Alston, of Glasgow. In it the boundary lines of the various counties are given, the capital cities are indicated by square dots, and the towns by those of a round form. The initial letter of each county is also embossed, which is of great service, as it enables any one quickly to ascertain the name of the locality under examination. Mountains and rivers, however, are not clearly indicated, and the map would have been of more value if the relief had been higher, and if it had been accompanied by an embossed page of explanations; but although it has many defects, it is much to be regretted that it is now out of print, as it is certainly the best ever produced in this country. The maps sold by Mr. Moon, of Brighton, are of the most meagre description, and only deserve the name of out

lines. The signs used for mountains, etc. are calculated to convey the most erroneous impressions. In America the philanthropic Dr. Howe, of Boston, has issued several atlases, which in many respects contain the best tangible maps yet produced. They, however, possess a few radical defects, which greatly interfere with their usefulness. The globes hitherto made for the blind are large and expensive, but tolerably efficient. They were executed by the best globe-makers of London and other large towns, and in general contain in a raised form the various signs and marks to be found in similar productions for the sighted; it is, however, much to be wished that portable globes were made for sale, which might be done cheaply and without much trouble. The writer has long desired to produce maps and globes possessing greater advantages than any now existing; but various engagements have compelled him to forego the gratification of his wishes, and devote himself to more immediate duties. He hopes, however, that the time may come when his anticipations may be fully realized.

Before quitting this subject it may be useful to name that whenever a tangible map is required that cannot be purchased, it may be made by taking an ordinary map as used by the sighted, and pricking the boundary lines very slightly with the point of a fine needle from the front to the back of the map, and then with a coarser needle pricking the same lines through from the back to the front. In this way very excellent maps may be produced, but it is a work of time and patience. Rivers may be shown by double pricked lines, towns by dots embossed from the back with a blunt instrument, and mountains by a succession of similar dots. The map chosen should be on a large scale, and if the initial letter of each locality is pricked in the proper place, it will be of great service to the pupil. The mariner's compass, introduced by the Rev. W. Taylor, and improved by the writer, will

be found very useful in connection with the study of geography.

Tangible orreries have been made with success at the School for the Blind, St. John's Wood, London, and at the Institution at Lausanne. The planets are represented by balls of different sizes, which are attached to rods working on pins, so as to represent the revolutions of the heavenly bodies.

MATHEMATICAL DIAGRAMS AND PICTURES.

Many attempts have been made to introduce embossed pictures, but as the perception of colour and distance are essential to the due appreciation of anything connected with the illustrative art, these attempts have proved utter failures. To persons blind from infancy lines embossed to indicate a bird, beast, or fish, simply give the idea of an intricate contrivance, which may mean anything you like to name. When the persons or things cannot themselves be felt, the blind require models or stuffed specimens, a good museum of which existed some years ago in connection with the Association for Promoting the General Welfare of the Blind, London, and it is much to be wished that every institution were supplied with a similar collection. The managers of the Association above-named were compelled to relinquish the museum for want of space, but they would be only too happy to have it in their power to reorganize the plan; and here we cannot help expressing surprise that no provision should be made for the blind in connection with the national and local museums of the country. Surely thirty thousand human beings are not the less to be cared for, because they have the misfortune of being blind. Of course, it has been supposed that articles displayed in ordinary museums are of no use to persons with