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Obs. His modesty should discover itself not only in his expressons at the beginning, but in his whole manner; in his looks, in his gestures, in the tone of his voice. Every auditory take in good part those marks of respect and awe, which are paid to them by one who addresses them. Indeed the modesty of an introduction should never betray any thing mean or abject. It is always of great use to an orator, that together with modesty and deference to his hearers, he should show a certain sense of dignity, arising from a persuasion of the justice or importance of the subject on which he is to speak. 486. In the fourth place, an introduction should usually be carried on in the calm manner. This is seldom the place for vehemence and passion. tions must rise as the discourse advances. The minds of the hearers must be gradually prepared, before the speaker can venture on strong and passionate senti

ments.

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Obs. The exceptions to this rule, are when the subject is such, that the very mention of it naturally awakens some passionate emotion; or when the unexpected presence of some person or object, in a popular assembly, inflames the speaker, and makes him break forth with unusual warmth. Either of these will justify what is called the exordium ab abrupto.

Example. Thus the appearance of Cataline in the senate renders the vehement beginning of Cicero's first oration against him very natural and proper: “ Quousque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra ?" And thus Bishop Atterbury, in preaching from this text, "Blessed is he, whosoever shall not be offended in me," ventures on breaking forth with this bold exordium: “ And can any man then be offended in thee, blessed Jesus ???

487. In the fifth place, it is a rule in introductions, not to anticipate any material part of the subject.

Obs. When topics, or arguments, which are afterwards to be enlarged upon, are hinted at, and, in part, brought forth in the introduction, they loose the grace of novelty upon their second appearance. The impression intended to be made by any capital thought, is always made with the greatest advantage, when it is made entire, and in its proper place.

488. In the last place, the introduction ought to be proportioned, both in length, and in kind, to the discourse that is to follow: in length, as nothing can be more absurd than to errect a very great portico before a small building; and in kind, as it is no less absurd to overcharge, with superb ornaments, the

276 The Proposition or Enunciation of the Subječt.

portico of a plain dwelling-house, or to make the entrance to a monument as gay as that to an arbour. Common sense directs, that every part of a discourse should be suited to the strain and spirit of the whole.

Scholium. These are the principal rules that relate to intoductions. They are adapted, in a great measure, to discourses of ail kinds. In pleadings at the bar, or speeches in public assemblies, particular care must be taken not to employ such an introduction as the adverse party may lay hold of, and turn to his advantage.

489. After the introduction, what commonly comes next in order, is the proposition, or enunciation of the subject. Concerning the proposition, it is to be observed, that it should be as clear and distinct as possible, and expressed in few and plain words, without the least affectation.

490. To this, generally succeeds the division, or the laying down the method of the discourse; on which it is necessary to make some observations.

Obs. We do not mean, that in every discourse, a formal division or distribution of it into parts, is requisite. There are many occasion of public speaking, when this is neither requisite, nor would be proper; when the discourse, perhaps, is to be short, or only one point is to be treated of; or when the speaker does not choose to warn his hearers of the method he is to follow, or of the conclusion to which he seeks to bring them. Order of one kind or another, is, indeed, essential to every good discourse; that is, every thing should be so arranged, that what goes before may give light and force to what follows. But this may be accomplished by means of a concealed method. What we call division is, when the method is propounded in form to the hearers. The discourse in which this sort of division most commonly takes place, is a sermon.

491. In a sermon, or pleading, or any discourse, where division is proper to be used, the most material rules are,

492. First, that the several parts into which the subject is divided, be really distinct from one another; that is, that no one include another.

Obs. It were a very absurd division, for instance, if one should propose to treat first, of the advantages of virtue, and next, of those of justice or temperance; because, the first head evidently

comprehends the second, as a genus does the species. He who proceeds in this method involves his subject in disorder and indistinctness.

493. Secondly, in division, we must take care to follow the order of nature; beginning with the simplest points, such as are easiest apprehended, and necessary to be first discussed; and proceeding thence to those which are built upon the former, and which suppose them to be known. We must divide the subject into those parts into which it is most easily and naturally resolved; that it may seem to split itself, and not to be violently torn asunder: "Dividere," as it is commonly said, "non frangere."

494. Thirdly, the several members of a division ought to exhaust the subject; otherwise, we do not make a complete division; we exhibit the subject by pieces and corners only, without giving any such plan as displays the whole.

495. Fourthly, the terms in which our partitions are expressed, should be as concise as possible. Avoid all, circumlocution here. Admit not a single word but what is necessary. Precision is to be studied, above all things, in laying down your method.

Obs. It is this which chiefly makes a division appear neat and elegant; when the several heads are propounded in the clearest, most expressive, and, at the same time, the fewest words possible. This never fails to strike the hearers agreeably; and is, at the same time, of great consequence towards making the divisions be more easily remembered.

496. Fifthly, avoid an unnecessary multiplication of heads. To split a subject into a great many minute parts, by divisions and subdivisions without end, has always a bad effect in speaking.

Obs. It may be proper in a logical treatise; but it makes an oration appear hard and dry, and unnecessarily fatigues the memory. In a sermon, there may be from three to five or six heads, including subdivisions; seldom should there be more.

497. The next constituent part of a discourse, which we mentioned, was narration, or explication.

Obs. We put these two together, both because they fall nearly

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under the same rules, and because they commonly answer the same purpose; serving to illustrate the cause, or the subject of which the orator treats, before he proceeds to argue either on one side or other; or to make any attempt for interesting the passions of the hearers. Illus. 1. In pleadings at the bar, narration is often a very important part of the discourse, and requires to be particularly attended to. Besides its being in no case an easy matter to relate with grace and propriety, there is, in narrations at the bar, a peculiar difficulty. The pleader must say nothing but what is true; and, at the same time, he must avoid saying any thing that will hurt his

cause.

2. The facts which he relates, are to be the ground-work of all his future reasoning. To recount them so as to keep strictly within the bounds of truth, and yet to present them under the colours most favourable to his cause; to place, in the most striking light, every circumstance which is to his advantage, and to soften and weaken such as make against him, demand no small exertion of skill and dexterity. He must always remember, that if he discovers too much art, he defeats his own purpose, and creates a distrust of bis sincerity.

498. To be clear and distinct, to be probable, and to be concise, are the qualities which critics chiefly require in narration; each of which carries, sufficiently, the evidence of its importance.

Illus. 1. Distinctness belongs to the whole train of the discourse, but is especially requisite in narration, which ought to throw light on all that follows. A fact, or a single circumstance left in obscurity, and misapprehended by the judge, may destroy the effect of all the argument and reasoning which the speaker employs. If his narration be improbable, the judge will not regard it; and if it be tedious and diffuse, he will be tired of it, and forget it.

2. In order to produce distinctness, besides the study of the general rules of perspicuity which were formerly given, narration, requires particular attention to ascertain clearly the names, the dates, the places, and every other material circumstance of the facts recounted.

2. In order to be probable in narration, it is material to enter into the characters of the persons of whom we speak, and to show, that their actions proceed from such motives as are natural, and likely to gain belief.

4. In order to be as concise as the subject will admit, it is necessary to throw out all superfluous circumstances; the rejection of which will likewise tend to make our narration more forcible and more clear.

Obs. In sermons, where there is seldom any occasion for narration, explication of the subject to be discoursed on, comes in the place of narration at the bar, and is to be taken up much on the same tone; that is, it must be concise, clear, and distinct; and in a style correct and elegant, rather than highly adorned. To explain the doc

trine of the text with propriety; to give a full and perspicuous account of the nature of that virtue or duty which forms the subject of the discourse, is properly the didactic part of preaching; on the right execution of which much depends for all that comes afterwards in the way of persuasion.

499. Of the argumentative or reasoning part of a discourse. In whatever place, or on whatever subject one speaks, this, beyond doubt, is of the greatest consequence. For the great end for which men speak on any serious occasion, is to convince their hearers of something being either true, or right, or good; and, by means of this conviction, to influence their practice. Reason and argument make the foundation of all manly and persuasive eloquence.

500. Now, with respect to arguments, three things are requisite.

First, the invention of them;

Secondly, the proper disposition and arrangement of them;

And, thirdly, the expressing of them in such a style and manner, as to give them their full force.

501. The first of these, invention, is, without doubt, the most material, and the ground-work of the rest.

Obs. 1. But, with respect to this, it is beyond the power of art to give any real assistance. Art cannot go so far, as to supply a speaker with arguments on every cause, and every subject; though it may be of considerable use in assisting him to arrange and express those, which his knowledge of the subject has discovered. For it is one thing to discover the reasons that are most proper to convince men, and another, to nianage these reasons with the most advantage. The latter is all that to which rhetoric can pretend.

2. The assistance that can be given, not with respect to the invention, but with respect to the disposition and conduct of arguments may be reduced to the following methods.

502. Two different methods may be used by orators in the conduct of their reasoning. The terms of art for these methods are, the analytic, and the synthetic method.

Illus. The analytic is that in which the orator conceals his intention concerning the point he is to prove, till he has gradually

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