a peculiar glandular secretion thrown out upon its surface; it is then again conveyed into a second preparatory digestive organ; and finally transmitted into the true stomach or gizzard, formed of two strong muscles, connected externally with a tendinous substance, and lined internally with a thick membrane of great power and strength; and in this place the unmasticated food is at length completely triturated, and prepared for the operation of the gastric juice.

Those birds which live chiefly on grain and vegetable substances, partake in a degree of the nature and disposition of herbivorous quadrupeds. In both, the food and the provision for its digestion are very similar. Alike distinguished for sedentary habits and gentleness of manners, their lives are harmlessly and usefully passed in collecting seeds and fruits, and ridding the earth of noxious and destructive insects; they live wholly on the defensive with all the feathered race, and are content to rear and defend their offspring from the attacks of their enemies. It is from this tractable and gentle race, as well as from the amphibious or aquatic tribes, that man has long succeeded in obtaining useful and domestic species, which, from their prolific nature and hardihood, afford a vast supply of wholesome and nutritious food. Of these, the hen, originally from India, the goose, duck, and pigeon of Europe, the turkey of America, and the guinea-hen of Africa, are the principal; to which may also be added, as less useful, or more recently naturalized, the peacock of India, the pheasant of the same country, the Chinese and Canada goose, the Muscovy duck, and the European swan.

Carnivorous birds, by many striking traits, evince the destiny for which they have been created; they are provided with wings of great length, supported by powerful muscles, which enable them to fly with energy, and soar with ease at the loftiest elevations from which they are visible. They are armed with strong and hooked bills, and with sharp and formidable claws; they are also further distinguished by

their large heads, short necks, strong, muscular thighs in ai of their retractile talons, and a sight so piercing, as to enable them, while soaring at the greatest height, to perceive their prey, upon which they sometimes descend, like an arrow, with undeviating aim. In these birds the stomach is smaller than in the granivorous kinds, and their intestines are shorter. Like beasts of prey, they are of a fierce and unsociable nature; and so far from herding together like the inoffensive tribes, they drive even their offspring from the eyry, and seek habitually the shelter of desert rocks, neglected ruins, or the solitude of the darkest forest, from whence they utter loud, terrific, or piercing cries, in accordance with the gloomy rage and inquietude of their instincts.

Besides these grand divisions of the winged nations, there are others, which, in their habits and manners, might be com pared to the amphibious animals, as they live chiefly on the water, and feed on its productions. To enable them to swim and dive in quest of their aquatic food, their toes are connected by broad membranes or webs, with which, like oars, they strike the water, and are impelled with force. In this way even the seas, lakes, and rivers, abounding with fish, insects, and seeds, swarm with birds of various kinds, all of which obtain an abundant supply. There are other aquatic birds, frequenting marshes and the margins of lakes, rivers, and the sea, which seem to partake of an intermediate nature between the land and water tribes. Some of these feed on fishes and reptiles; others, with long and sensible bills and extended necks, seek their food in wet and muddy marshes. These birds are not made for swimming; but, familiar with water, they wade, and many follow the edge of the retiring waves of the sea, gleaning their insect prey at the recession of the tides. For this kind of life nature has provided them with long legs, bare of feathers even above the knees; and their toes, unconnected by webs, are only partially furnished with membranous appendages, just sufficient to support them on the soft and boggy

P

grounds they frequent. To this tribe belong the cranes, snipes, sandpipers, woodcocks, and many others.

LESSON LIV.

The Same, continued. IDEM.

In comparing the senses of animals in connection with their instinct, we find that of sight to be more extended, more acute, and more distinct in birds, in general, than in quadrupeds. A sparrow-hawk, while hovering in the air, perceives a lark or other small bird sitting on the ground, at twenty times the distance that such an object would be visible to a man or dog. A kite, which soars beyond the reach of human vision, yet distinguishes a lizard, field-mouse, or bird, and from this lofty station selects the tiny object of his prey, descending upon it in nearly a perpendicular line.

The rapid motions executed by birds have also a reference to the perfection of their vision; for if nature, while she endowed them with great agility and vast muscular strength, had left them as short-sighted as ourselves, their latent powers would have availed them nothing; and the dangers of a perpetually impeded progress would have repressed or extinguished their ardor. We may, then, in general, consider the celerity with which an animal moves, as a just indication of the perfection of its vision. A bird, therefore, shooting swiftly through the air, must undoubtedly see better than cne which slowly describes a waving tract.

Comparing animals with each other, we soon perceive that smell, in general, is much more acute among the quadrupeds than among the birds. Even the pretended scent of the vulture is imaginary, as he does not perceive the tainted carrion,

on which he feeds, through a wicker basket, though its odor is as potent as in the open air. This choice, also, of decaying flesh, is probably regulated by his necessities, and the deficiency of his muscular powers to attack a living, or even tear in pieces a recent prey. The structure of the olfactory organ, in birds, is obviously inferior to that of quadrupeds; the external nostrils are wanting, and those odors which might excite sensation have access only to the duct leading from the palate and even in those where the organ is disclosed, the nerves, which take their origin from it, are far from being so numerous, so large, or so expanded, as in the quadrupeds. We may, therefore, regard touch in man, smell in the quadruped, and sight in birds, as respectively the three most perfect senses, which exercise a general influence on the character.

After sight, the most perfect of the senses in birds appears to be hearing, which is even superior to that of the quadrupeds, and scarcely exceeded in the human species. We perceive with what facility they retain and repeat tones, successions of notes, and even discourse; we delight to listen to their unwearied songs, to the incessant warbling of their tuneful affection. Their ear and throat are more ductile and powerful than in other animals, and their voice more capacious, and generally agreeable. A crow, which is scarcely more than the thousandth part the size of an ox, may be heard as far, or farther; the nightingale can fill a wider space with its music than the human voice. This prodigious extent and power of sound depend entirely on the structure of their organs; but the support and continuance of their song result solely from their internal emotions.

The windpipe is wider and stronger in birds than in any other class of animals, and usually terminates below in a large cavity that augments the sound. The lungs, too, have greater extent, and communicate with internal cavities, which are capable of being expanded with air, and, besides lightening

the body, give additional force to the voice. Indeed, the formation of the thorax, the lungs, and all the organs connected with these, seems expressly calculated to give force and duration to their utterance.

Another circumstance, showing the great power of voice in birds, is the distance at which they are audible in the higher regions of the atmosphere. An eagle may rise at least to the height of seventeen thousand feet, for it is there just visible. Flocks of storks and geese may mount still higher, since, notwithstanding the space they occupy, they soar almost out of sight; their cry will therefore be heard from an altitude of more than three miles, and is at least four times as powerful as the voice of men and quadrupeds.

Sweetness of voice and melody of song are qualities which, in birds, are partly natural and partly acquired. The facility with which they catch and repeat sounds, enables them not only to borrow from each other, but often even to copy the more difficult inflections and tones of the human voice, as well as of musical instruments. It is remarkable, that, in the tropical regions, while the birds are arrayed in the most glowing colors, their voices are hoarse, grating, singular, or terrific. Our sylvan Orpheus, the mocking-bird, the brown thrush, the warbling flycatcher, as well as the linnet, the thrush, the blackbird, and the nightingale of Europe, preeminent for song, are all of the plainest colors and weakest tints.

The clothing of birds varies with their habits and the climates they inhabit. The aquatic tribes, and those which live in northern regions, are provided with an abundance of plumage and fine down; from which circumstance we may often form a correct judgment of their natal regions. In all climates, aquatic birds are almost equally feathered, and are provided with posterior glands containing an oily substance for anointing their feathers, which, aided by their thickness, prevents the admission of moisture to their bodies. These glands are less conspicuous in land-birds, unless, like the fishing