the power of production which theory would induce us to expect with the increased density of population.

We shall then, perhaps, be able to ascertain why the people. of Great Britain, with a dense population, can obtain larger wages than those of Russia, where only the most fertile soils require to be cultivated; why the scattered population of the banks of the Ohio, obtain larger returns to their labour than the dense population of France; why the people on the shores of the Delaware or the Hudson, obtain the highest compensation, while those on the shores of the magnificent Ganges are compelled to be satisfied with a handful of rice; why it is that bodies of men labouring under the disadvantage of a sterile soil and severe climate, like those of New England, leave behind them in the race those who enjoy the fine climate and fruitful soil of Brazil and India: what it is, in short, that enables man to triumph over the obstacles which threaten to prevent him from obtaining comfort in return for labour.

In adopting this course we follow that marked out by an eminent writer, who says of the political economist, that,

"He should mark the changes which have taken place in the fortunes and condition of the human race in different regions and ages of the world: he should trace the rise, progress, and decline of industry: and, above all, he should carefully analyze and compare the effects of different institutions and regulations, and discriminate the various circumstances, wherein an advancing and declining society differ from each other. These investigations, by disclosing the real causes of national opulence and refinement, furnish the economist with the means of giving a satisfactory solution of all the important problems in the science of wealth; and of devising a scheme of public administration calculated to ensure the continued advancement of society."*

* M'Culloch, Principles of Political Economy, p. 24.

CHAPTER II.

SECURITY OF PERSON.-ENGLAND. THE UNITED STATES.—

FRANCE.-INDIA.

In the inquiry which we now propose to make into the policy of England, the United States, France, and India, our object is to compare each with the other, as regards the enjoyment of security of person and of property, the great objects for the promotion of which government was instituted. We do not propose to compare them with any ideal standard of perfection, as, if we did so, it might be necessary to show that where security is most complete, it is still far from perfect. If it can be shown that where it is most so, there production is greatest, and that in proportion as it diminishes the productive power also diminishes, it will be obvious to those who now enjoy it in the greatest degree, that every step tending to its increase must equally tend to the increase of production, and they may thus be induced to adopt the measures necessary for that purpose.

It is proper here to observe, that as we wish to show the causes of the existing state of things, it is necessary to look at the past policy of those nations rather than at their present course; thus, in India, we must examine the transactions of the last century, and show the causes of the absence of capital, rather than at the present somewhat improved administration, which will tend to increase it for the use of the next generation; and in England, we must examine the old system of poor laws, which has aided in producing the present state of affairs, rather than the new system, which tends to produce future improvement.

The beneficial effects of security, as it has existed in Great

In a letter from Turgot to Dr. Price, he asks, “Is it because you are less ill than others, that you have turned your attention to persuading yourselves that you are well?"-Euvres de Turgot, t. IX. p. 378. To assert that in any country the system established is that which would most tend to enable man to apply his powers advantageously to the production of commodities, and consequently to the improvement of his condition, would be to commit the error indicated by M. Turgot.

Britain and the United States, are well described by Mr. M'Culloch, in the following passage.

"The immediate cause of the rapid increase and vast amount of the commerce of Great Britain, is doubtless to be found in the extraordinary extension of our manufactures during the last half century. To inquire into the various circumstances that have contributed to the astonishing development of the powers and resources of industry, that has been witnessed in this country since Arkwright and Watt began their memorable career, would be alike inconsistent with our object and limits. There can be no question, however, that freedom and security-freedom to engage in every employment, and to pursue our own interest in our own way, coupled with an intimate conviction that acquisitions, when made, might be securely enjoyed or disposed of-have been the most copious sources of our wealth and power. There have only been two countries, Holland and the United States, which have, in these respects, been placed under nearly similar circumstances as England: and, notwithstanding the disadvantages of their situation, the Dutch have long been, and still continue to be the most industrious and opulent people of the continent-while the Americans, whose situation is more favourable, are advancing in the career of improvement with a rapidity hitherto unknown. In Great Britain we have been exempted for a lengthened period from foreign aggression and intestine commotion; the pernicious influence of the feudal system has long been at an end; the same equal burdens have been laid on all classes; we have enjoyed the advantage of liberal institutions, without any material alloy of popular licentiousness or violence; our intercourse with foreign states has, indeed, been subjected to many vexations and oppressive regulations; but full scope has been given to the competition of the home producers; and, on the whole, the natural order of things has been less disturbed amongst us by artificial restraints, than in most other countries. But without security, no degree of freedom could have been of any material importance. Happily, however, every man has felt satisfied, not only of the temporary, but of the permanent tranquillity of the country, and the stability of its institutions. The plans and combinations of the capitalists have not been affected by any misgivings as to what might take place in future.

"Moneyed fortunes have not been amassed, because they might be more easily sent abroad in periods of confusion and disorder; but all individuals have unhesitatingly engaged, whenever an opportunity offered, in undertakings of which a remote posterity was alone to reap the benefit. No one can look at the immense sums expended upon the permanent improvement of the land, on docks, warehouses, canals, &c., or to reflect for a moment on the settlement of property in

the funds, and the extent of our system of life insurance, without being impressed with a deep sense of the vast importance of that confidence which the public have placed in the security of property, and, consequently, in the endurance of the present order of things, and the good faith of government. Had this confidence been imperfect, industry and invention would have been paralyzed; and much of that capital, which clothes and feeds the industrious classes, would never have existed. The maintenance of this security entire, both in fact and in opinion, is essential to the public welfare. If it be anywise impaired, the colossal fabric of our prosperity will crumble into dust; and the commerce of London, like that of Carthage, Palmyra, and Venice, will, at not a very remote period, be famous only in history. It is, therefore, of the utmost consequence, that in introducing the changes which the wants and altered circumstances of society require should be made in the frame of our polity, nothing be done to impair, but every thing to strengthen that confidence and security to which we are mainly indebted for the high and conspicuous place we have long occupied among the nations of the earth."*

Although the views here offered are generally correct, yet security has not been perfect in either country, as we shall show. It must, however, be borne in mind that there are no countries in which any occurrence tending to interfere with the rights of person or property, becomes so immediately known as in those of which we now treat. Thousands of persons might perish in Russia or in Turkey, without the knowledge of those who lived at a distance of a few hundred miles, while no disturbance, however trivial, in England or in the United States, can be concealed.t The local newspapers, desirous of giving interest to their co

• M'Culloch, Dictionary of Commerce.

"It should be observed, also, that in large towns, and in populous districts intersected by roads, which furnish a rapid conveyance of intelligence from place to place, and where newspapers are in constant use, much more in proportion is known of every enormity that is perpetrated than in remote country districts, thinly peopled, where there is less facility of mutual communication, and where their natural appetite for news is compelled to limit itself to the gossip of the nearest hamlet. Much apparent increase of crime, (I will not undertake to say how much,) consists, I am convinced, in the increase of newspapers; for crimes, especially (be it observed,) such as are the most remote from the experience of each individual, and therefore strike him as something strange, always furnish interesting articles of intelligence. I have no doubt that a single murder in Great Britain has often furnished matter for discourse to more than twenty times as many persons as any twenty such murders would in Turkey. We should remember, that there are not more particles of dust in the sunbeam than in any other part of the room, though we see them more where the light is stronger."Whateley's Lectures, p. 197.

lumns, give all that occurs, and generally colour it as strongly as is necessary for that purpose.

We have already shown the extreme insecurity that existed in England in the time of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. At that time, population was small and the inferior soils only were cultivated; the means of subsistence were obtained with difficulty; the country abounded with "sturdy rogues," upon whom the magistrates dared not inflict punishment. With the extension of cultivation over the inferior soils security increased, yet during a large portion of the last century highway robbers abounded, and neither the persons nor property of travellers were secure. Even in the immediate vicinity of London, persons returning to town from their Sunday excursions, deemed it necessary to travel in large parties, that they might escape being robbed and maltreated. Within the last fifty years, there has been a rapid extension of cultivation-a rapid increase of population-and a great increase of security.

The whole number of persons convicted in 1834, for offences against the person, subjecting them to the punishments of death, transportation, or imprisonment for terms exceeding one year, was 207, being one in every 70,000 of the population of England and Wales. In the reign of Henry VIII. one in 2000 was hanged annually.

* The author was present at the arrest of a slave, in a small country town, two years since, when the circumstances attending it were calculated to produce considerable excitement. The conduct of the people, accustomed to defer to the laws, was such as excited his admiration, yet, on the next day, he read a very detailed account of the riot that had taken place. He had been present, but the riot escaped his observation. + Part I. P. 63.

The offences were as follows"Murder,

13

"Shooting, stabbing, administration of poison, with intent to murder, "Manslaughter,

65

15

"Attempt to procure miscarriage,

3

"Concealing the birth of infants,

5

"Sodomy, and assaults with intent to commit the same,

33