the interests of both were in perfect accordance, and that the one could not be benefited by any measure tending to the injury of the other; that both would be benefited by having security rendered as perfect as possible, and both would see that the most effectual mode of increasing security of their own persons and property, was to respect those of others, thereby diminishing the necessity for maintaining large armies and navies. The wages of labour and the profits of capital are high, where security is accompanied by freedom, and where the certainty of enjoying the fruits of labour prompts to exertion. In proportion as security is diminished-as action is restrained-as the product of labour is absorbed by the unproductive expenditure of the government, is the reduction of the power of production, and consequently of wages and profits. Where security exists there is, with the increase of population and the extension of cultivation over inferior soils, a constant increase in the return to labour, and a constant improvement of condition, as in England and the United States; where it does not exist, increase of population is attended by diminution in the power of cultivating the inferior soils-diminution of production—and deterioration of condition, as has been the case in India.* In the late work of Professor Tucker, to which we have before referred, the payment of rent is attributed to the necessity for having recourse, in the progress of population, to soils of constantly decreasing fertility; and as evidence that such is the case, he adduces the fact that as population becomes more dense, the owner of land receives a larger proportion of the product. In this he agrees with another recent writer, who says that "the owners of land come to obtain a constantly in creasing portion of the produce." In opposition to this it is admitted by Mr. Malthus, that with the extension of cultivation the proportion which is taken as rent is diminished, and he assigns as a reason that the labourer requires a large proportion to supply his physical wants.|| Col. Torrens, Mr. M'Culloch,** and other writers, find in this reduction of the proportion taken as rent, evidence of their theory, that as cultivation is extended over inferior soils, there is a constantly decreasing return to labour. It is obvious that there must be some mistake among these parties, or they could never draw the same inferences from directly opposite facts. If decrease of proportion be evidence of decreased returns, increased proportion cannot be brought forward as evidence of the same fact. The exceeding complication of this theory, by which its supporters are perpetually brought in opposition to each other, as we have shown above to be the case in the present instance, is abundant evidence of its incorrectness. The laws of nature are always simple. Tucker on Wages, Profits, and Rents, p. 173. Wakefield. Notes to Wealth of Nations, Chap. VIII. Book I. CHAPTER XII. DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLIC REVENUE. WE have stated that with the increased density of population, a higher degree of security, both of person and property, was to be obtained at the cost of a constantly diminishing proportion of the product of labour. It has, however, been shown that although such is the case in comparing the different parts of the United States, one with another, yet when we compare that country with England, France, or India, all of which have a more dense population than the United States, we find that security is less complete, while the proportion of product required is greater, and that the increase of proportion is in the same ratio as the diminution of security; i. e. that where security is least, there is the proportion required by the government greatest. We propose now to inquire into the distribution of the revenues of those nations, with a view to ascertain how far they are applied to purposes tending to improve the condition of the people, and how far to the gratification of the passions, or of the vanity, of those who are charged with the disbursement of them; how far they are used for the promotion of security, and how far the mode of application tends to the continuance of insecurity. In INDIA, at all times, the main object of raising revenue has been to carry on war for the extension of dominion, in order to have an opportunity of plundering on a larger scale. Almost the sole remaining records of the existence of the monarchs of that country is to be found in their immense tombs,* and in the ruins "The most conspicuous object within the fort, is the tomb of Sultan Mahomed, the last independent sovereign of the Adil Shahy dynasty. This stately building is 150 yards high, with a plain cornice on the edge. Opposite the eastern and western faces of the building, on this platform, are large fountains, and from the west side of it projects another terrace, to the distance of thirty yards, at the end of which is situated the mosque. * The whole is situated within an enclosure * of upwards of three hundred yards square, with an arcade in front."-Capt. G. Sydenham, in the Asiatic Researches, Vol. XIII. "Humaioon's tomb is a noble building of granite, inlaid with marble, in a very chaste and simple style of Gothic architecture. It is surrounded by a large garden, with terraces and fountains, all now gone to decay, except one of the latter. * of cities, erected for the gratification of their vanity, or destroy ed to gratify their desire of plunder. Under the present government, the governors and members of Council divide among themselves,† The members of the Revenue Boards, The Secretaries, The Diplomatic agents, The military expenses are, £ 153,265 131,532 155,185 249,161 9,326,811 Here are twelve hundred thousand dollars appropriated for the diplomacy of a country, the labourers of which are compelled to limit their expenditure for clothing, for a family of four persons, to six shillings, ($1 44,) per annum, and nearly fifty millions of dollars for the maintenance of the army of a government which claims from a large portion of its subjects one half of the gross product of labour and capital, and yet can scarcely afford the smallest aid to the construction of roads or canals. The garden itself is surrounded by an embattled wall, with towers, four gateways, and a cloister within, all the way round."—Heber. The tomb of Akbar "stands in a square area of about forty English acres, enclosed by an embattled wall, with octagonal towers at the angles, surmounted with open pavilions. This enclosure has four very noble gateways, of red granite, the principal of which is inlaid with white marble, and has four high marble minarets. The space within is planted with trees, and divided into green alleys, leading to the central building, which is a sort of solid pyramid, surrounded externally with cloisters, galleries, and domes, diminishing gradually on ascending, till it ends in a square platform of white marble, surrounded by the most elaborate lattice work, of the same material, in the centre of which is also a small altar-tomb, carved with a delicacy and beauty which do full justice to the material, and to the graceful forms of Arabic characters, which form its chief ornament."-Heber. * "It would not be easy for the writer to describe the charm that is thrown around the ruins of Bejapore;"-styled by Sir James Mackintosh, the 'Palmyra of the Deccan'-" or to find words to express the interest that the history of its shortlived splendour excites in the mind, while contemplating its present condition. It seems as if it were the capitol of a nation that was born in a day; commencing in that magnificence and extensiveness, in which it is usual for other places only to terminate, and attaining the highest degree of architectural grandeur in the very earliest stage of its existence. The third, or at farthest, the fourth generation of those who laid its foundations, saw its power overthrown; its princes slain, or made captives; its people scattered; and its walls and palaces, its mosques and sepulchres left to the hand of time, to work upon them its slow but certain operation of ruin and destruction. The history of India might almost be traced in the remains of ruined cities, that cover the surface of the land." The Emperor Shah Jehan, in the 17th century, built the city of Shahjehanabad, immediately adjoining the city of Delhi, and caused the inhabitants of the latter to remove to the former. The ruins of the old city cover the plain for an extent of nearly eight miles to the south of the modern city, and exhibit one of the most striking scenes of desolation to be met with throughout the world. "The salary of Lord Amherst, was £40,000 = 8 192,000.”— Wakefield's Public Expenditure, p. 177. Martin's Colonies, Vol. I. p. 130. VOL. II.-49. The new charter authorizes the king to erect the arch deaconries of Madras and Bombay into bishoprics, (subordinate to the Metropolitan of Bengal,) with salaries of 24,000 rupees annually, exclusive of £500 each for outfits, and independent of the expenses incurred in visitations. Here are salaries exceeding $12,000 per annum, for bishops of a Christian church, in a country in which the mass of the people can obtain no education whatever. In examining the expenditure of FRANCE, we find results very similar. In 1832, it was divided among the several ministers as follows: Here we find 339 millions appropriated to the maintenance of an army of 400,000 men, not to give security but to produce insecurity by the extreme severity of the impositions of all kinds thus rendered necessary. Were France prosperous, she would require no army to defend her territory against foreigners, and 20,000 men would maintain peace at home. The distribution of the funds appropriated to the army, is as follows to the marshals of France, of whom there are 13, and to the lieutenant generals, of whom there are 122, 40 thousand francs, $7,500, per annum each, and to the conscript, compelled to devote six of his best years to the public service, a very moderate allowance of food and clothing, and $5 47 per annum. We find 64 millions appropriated to the marine service, nearly all of which is required for the maintenance of colonies that are retained for the purpose of finding employment for the army, and ⚫ at the expense of the people of France, labourers and capitalists.§ The minister of finance disburses annually 570 millions, 300 of + Documens Statistiques, p. 145. 209. * Martin's Colonies, Vol. I. p. 313. Monarchy of the Middle Classes, Vol. II. p. "The French colonies not only absorb the whole of the local revenues, exceeding eight millions of francs, but require from the mother country, nearly eigh millions per annum.”—Bowring's First Report, p. 63. which are for interest on a debt contracted in part for the purpose of repaying their neighbours for the injury which the love of glory had induced them to commit; in part for the payment of their countrymen, who had been despoiled of their property,* and in part for carrying arms into Spain, for the purpose of dictating to their neighbours the form of government most proper for them.† He disburses 56 millions for pensions, of which 44 millions are to men who have been employed in disturbing the peace of their neighbours; 3 millions to the Legion of Honour; 15 millions to the civil list; and the chief part of the balance is paid to those who are employed in collecting taxes, or watching those who wish to avoid the payment of them. In the distribution of these portions of the revenues, we find throughout the same inequality as we have shown to exist in the army. The king has 13 palaces, and all the members of his family are provided therewith, while the inferior clerk receives scarcely sufficient to enable him to occupy a very inferior room in one of the worst quarters of Paris.§ During the reign of Louis XVIII., the civil list, exclusive of the other branches of the royal family, was fixed at 30,000,000 francs, or £1,200,000 sterling. On the accession of Charles X., it was reduced to, Since 1830, the allowance has been still further diminished, but it is still 3 millions of dollars per annum. The chief officers of State have salaries of 10, 15, and 20 thousand dollars per annum, while the clerk has scarcely sufficient to enable him to support existence. * One thousand millions were voted to the emigrants. + Four hundred millions was the cost of the invasion of Spain by the Duke d'Angouleme. It was recently proposed to grant Rambouillet to the Duke de Nemours. On that occasion it was asserted that the domain would sell for eight millions of francs. This is only one of the royal establishments. The salaries of the governors, and contingent expenses of maintaining these palaces, are 4,908,604 francs.-M'Gregor, Resources of Nations, Vol. I. p. 233. || M'Gregor, Resources of Nations, Vol. I. p. 231. ¶ Under Napoleon, the Minister of Finance had The Minister of the Interior, has Francs. 160,000 80,000 $15,000 15,000 |