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complete desolation the other flourishing townships of Magnesia, Pelion, Ossa, and Olympus. Even on the opposite heights of Olympus, across the vale of Tempe, Rapsani, from a thousand wealthy houses, which ten years ago it possessed, is now, without being guilty of either luxury or tumult, reduced to ten widowed hearths.

"To give a just idea of the prosperity of Ambelakia, it would be necessary to describe the poverty and depression of the surrounding country, because it is by the contrast alone, of the state from which it had emerged, and the evils it had escaped, that the energies, and institutions which caused its prosperity, can be duly appreciated. Here were to be seen springing again, grand and liberal ideas, on a soil devoted for twenty centuries to slavery; here the ancient Greek character arose, in its early energy, amidst the torrents and caverns of Pelion, (Ossa;) and to say all in a word, here were all the talents and virtues of ancient Greece, born again in a corner of modern Turkey.'

“Had an old commercial emporium had a conveniently situated sea-port, or a provincial chief town, possessing capital, connexions, and influence, extended thus rapidly its commerce and prosperity, it would have been cited, and justly so, as a proof of the good administration which ruled it. What then shall we say of the administration that has thus elevated an unknown, a weak, and insignificant hamlet, that has not a single field in its vicinity, that had no local industry, that had no commercial connexion, no advantage of position, was in the vicinity of no manufacturing movement, was on the track of no transit commerce, was not situated either on a navigable river, or on the sea, had no harbour even in its vicinity, and was accessible by no road, save a goat's path among precipices; with all these local disadvantages, it possessed no local advantage whatever over the thousand other villages of Thessaly; neither did its industry receive an impulse from new discoveries, or secrets of chemistry, or combination of mechanical powers. It supplied industrious Germany, not by the perfection of its jennies, but by the industry of its spindle and distaff. It taught Montpellier the art of dyeing, not from experimental chairs, but because dyeing was with it a domestic and culinary operation, subject to daily observation in every kitchen, and by the simplicity and honesty, not the science of its system, it reads a lesson to commercial associations, and holds up an example unparalleled in the commercial history of Europe, of a joint-stock and labour company, ably and economically, and successfully administered, in which the interests of industry and capital were long equally represented. Yet the system of administration with which all this is connected, is common to the thousand hamlets of Thessaly, that have not emerged from their insignificance; but Ambelakia for twenty years was left alone. In this short sentence lies the secret of its prosperity, and the promise of the regeneration both of Turkey and Greece.

"The marine of Greece has been for ten years the object of so much inquiry, that I need not enter into any detail respecting it. Those who have gone along with me in tracing the progress of these various communities to their municipal institutions, will see the agency of similar causes in the six hundred vessels, of three hundred tons and upwards, which the maritime communities of Galaxidi, Missolonghi, Cranidi, Spezzia, Hydra, Psara, Cassos, Santorin, &c., possessed-all spots out of the way of man and of commerce; while all the great emporiums of trade in the Levant, together, did not possess a dozen native Greek vessels of the same class. They will even, perhaps, find in these institutions the explanation of the origin and spring of prosperity and activity, which have so generally been considered unintelligible and inexplicable.

"Amongst these communities, the principle of association was carried from their rocks on board their vessels. The ship's company were all owners in the vessel, or sharers in the cargo; labour and capital were equally calculated, and one common interest guided the whole body.* The moral control, which was the enlivening spirit of the municipali ties, followed them in their speculations afloat; a proof of which may be found in this, that their money, and other transactions, were carried

"Wherever the same system of copartnership has existed, the same surprising energy, enterprise, and intelligence, have been the result. It is, indeed, with amazement, mingled with scepticism, that we trace the commercial grandeur of the republics of Italy; but the scepticism may disappear, when we perceive in them the same principle, at least in their earliest days, which we see in active operation, and producing the same wonderful results, at the present moment.

"The maritime islands of Greece are not solitary witnesses; the whalemen of Nantucket, inhabiting an island too, with a municipal government, and carrying afloat the subdivisions of interests, as the Greeks have done, have extorted the following tribute from the eloquence of Burke, who observed them from a distance, but saw not the internal springs by which they are put in motion: Look at the manner in which this New England people carry on the whale fishery. While we follow them among the trembling mountains of ice, and behold them penetrating into the deepest frozen recesses of Hudson's and Davis's Straits; while we are looking for them beneath the Arctic Circle, we hear that they have pierced into the opposite region of polar cold; that they are at the antipodes, and engaged under the frozen serpent of the south. Falkland Island, which seemed too remote and too romantic an object for the grasp of national ambition, is but a stage and resting place for their victorious industry. Nor is the equinoxial heat more discouraging to them than the accumulated winter of both poles. We learn that while some of them draw the line, or strike the harpoon, on the coast of Africa, others run the longitude, and pursue their gigantic game along the coasts of Brazil. No sea but what is vexed with their fisheries-no climate that is not witness to their toils. Neither the perseverance of Holland, nor the activity of France, nor the dexterous and firm sagacity of English enterprise, ever carried this most perilous mode of hardy industry to the extent to which it has been pursued by this recent people-a people who are still in the gristle, and not hardened into manhood.'"-Burke's Speech on American Affairs, 1774.

on only by verbal agreement and simple entries. Bonds, and even receipts, were unknown, yet they had, like the Ambelakiots, neither judge nor law of established authority."

In all these nations we find results entirely according with those which are exhibited in India, France, England, and the United States. We find security accompanied by the profitable application of labour, and men enabled to derive large returns from the cultivation of the inferior soils of Norway. In the adjoining Kingdom of Sweden we find insecurity, accompanied by poverty and wretchedness. In Spain, we find insecurity and a scattered population deriving a miserable support from the most fertile soil, while in New England we found a more dense population deriving the largest returns to labour from the worst soils.

We trust the reader is now satisfied, that with the increase of population there is a tendency to improvement in the condition of man, and that it would be found uniformly accompanying increase in the density of population, were it not that man has been more disposed to plunder his neighbours than to work for himself. He has sought for wealth and obtained poverty and wretchedness. He has sought for glory and has obtained ignorance, vice, and immorality. He has forgotten the golden rule, "do unto others as you would have others do unto you," obedience to which would have insured him the enjoyment of security and the power to accumulate capital, with a constant improvement of moral and physical condition, and would have given to India a higher degree of prosperity than France, England, or the United States.

NOTE ON INDIA. That the reader may have before him more fully the state of insecurity existing even at the present moment, we give him the following account of the manner in which justice is administered in the King's Courts in Madras and Bengal:

"The expenses of litigation in England are so heavy, that people daily sit down under wrongs and submit to losses rather than go to law; and yet the English are the richest people in the world. The people of India are poor, and the expense of litigation in the Supreme Court is five times as great as the expense of litigation in Westminster Hall. An undefended cause, which might be prosecuted successfully in the Court of King's Bench for about 81. sterling, cannot be prosecuted in the Supreme Court under 401. sterling. Where our English barrister receives a guinea, a barrister here receives two gold mohurs, more than three guineas. For making a motion of course an English barrister receives half a guinea, a barrister here receives a gold mohur. Officers of the court are enabled to accumulate in a few years, out of the substance of ruined suitors, fortunes larger than the oldest and most distinguished servant can expect to carry home after thirty or forty years of eminent services. I speak of Bengal, where the system is in full operation. At Madras, the Supreme Court has, I believe, fulfilled its mission. It has done its work; it has beggared every rich suitor within its jurisdiction, and is in.

active for want of somebody to ruin. This is not all. Great as the evils of the Supreme Court really are, they are exaggerated by the apprehension of the natives to a still more frightful magnitude. The terror with which it is regarded by them is notorious. Within the last few months, in consequence of an attempt made by some persons connected with that court to extend its jurisdiction over the suburbs of Calcutta, hundreds of respectable and wealthy natives petitioned the government, in language indicating the greatest dismay-' to give to every English defendant, in every civil suit, a right to bring the native plaintiff before the Supreme Court, is to give to every dishonest Englishman an immunity against almost all civil prosecution." "

Such is the character of these courts given by Mr. Macauley, now occupying a high station in the government of India, and such is the system under which it is expected that India will become prosperous and happy!

CHAPTER XVI.

SUMMARY.

THE proposition with which our First Part concluded was, "That, as capital increases, population becomes more dense, and the inferior soils are brought into action with a constantly increasing return to labour, men are enabled to benefit by the co-operation of their neighbours, and habits of kindness and good feeling take the place of the savage and predatory habits of the early period. Poverty and misery gradually disappear, and are replaced by ease and comfort. Labour becomes gradually less severe, and the quantity required to secure the means of subsistence is diminished, by which he is enabled to devote more time to the cultivation of his mind. His moral improvement keeps pace with that which takes place in his physical condition, and thus the virtues of civilization replace the vices of savage life." We had, however, evidence that population had in many countries increased in density without either physical or moral improvement having taken place, and to ascertain the causes thereof, it became necessary to prosecute the inquiry just completed, the result of which we now offer to the reader in the following propositions.

I. That security of person, and perfect freedom of action-security of property, and perfect freedom in its employment-are essential to the productive application of labour.

II. That man associates with his fellow man with a view to obtain security.

III. That in the infancy of society, when population is thinly scattered over the land, and when the superior soils only are cultivated, a very large proportion of the labour of the community is employed in the endeavour to maintain security, which nevertheless exists in a very limited degree.

IV. That with the increase of capital man is enabled to draw nearer to his fellow man; population becomes more dense, and a constantly increasing security is obtained at the cost of a constantly diminishing proportion of the labour of the community.

V. That, therefore, while labour is constantly increasing in its productive power, a constantly increasing proportion is left to be divided between the labourer and the capitalist.

VI. That with this diminution in the proportion required for

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