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sistable, and he thereupon wished his countrymen to be prepared for its advent. With a presentiment of the evils that menaced his successors, he frequently exclaimed, "Os meus filhos ainda poderao viver descançados, mas ai dos meus netos." (Our children may live to end their days in peace, but God help our grandchildren.)

We can not in this place go into his financial, military and naval reforms. Suffice it to say, that he deprecated the policy of the government in retaining the working of all mines of gold and silver, which he designated "the fatal treasuries of princes," and which had compelled the king, reported to be one of the richest monarchs in Europe, at the beginning of his reign to borrow 400,000 cruzados ($200,000), to meet the exigencies of his court. In less than five years, by encouraging different national industries, he did away with the annual deficit, and secured an annual surplus in the royal treasury. He found both the army and the navy, nominally strong, but actually weak and deteriorating-so weak that the Algerine corsairs were in the habit not only of making descents on the coast, and plundering the inhabitants, without danger of chastisement, but would from time to time shut in the merchant vessels in their principal ports, until a convoy could be dispatched to protect them. He enlarged the navy by sending to England for 300 shipwrights and their workmen to work in the dockyards and arsenals of Lisbon, and built new and strengthened the old fortifications at all the principal ports.

Each of the reformatory measures of Pombal, aroused implacable enemies among them who were profiting by ancient abuses, or who were too ignorant to appreciate alteranate beneficial results beyond temporary inconveniences. These all culminated on the death of the King, and his few remaining years were darkened by seeing many of his reforms obstructed and overthrown, his official and personal enemies raised to positions of honor and trust, and accusations of all kinds against his personal fidelity, and a commission was appointed to investigate all his pecuniary transactions.

Overcome at length by age and infirmity Pombal breathed his last in the midst of his family and relations on the 5th of May, 1682, and in the 83d year of his age. "Love and obedience," if not แ troops of friends," accompanied his dying moments; his wife, his two daughters, and his son, the Count d' Oeyras, soothing that deathbed on which he exhibited the resignation of a philosopher and the steady faith of a Christian. His funeral was celebrated with the respect due to his rank, but the Bishop of Coimbra, for having assisted at it, was sharply reprimanded by the Governor of the province, and the priest who pronounced his funeral oration, having dared to deplore the ingratitude of Portugal towards the greatest of its Ministers, was confined in a convent in the Cape Verde Islands. When we add that the eulogistic epitaph which filial piety inscribed on his tomb was ordered by Government to be removed or erased, we have given the finishing touch to the picture of royal ingratitude towards one who had ceaselessly labored for the benefit of his country during a reign whose prosperity was mainly due to his single exertions.

MARTIN LUTHER-EDUCATION AND EDUCATIONAL VIEWS.

Abridged from Life of Luther, by BARNAS SEARS, D. D.

MARTIN LUTHER was born in the Electorate of Saxony, at Eisleben, in the county of Mansfeld, November 10, 1483; but his father, when Martin was six months old, removed to Mansfeld, which became henceforward the home of his childhood. He always spoke of himself and of his ancestors as belonging to the peasantry. 'I am a peasant's son. My father, my grandfather, and my forefathers were all true peasants. Afterwards my father went to Mansfeld, and became an ore-digger.' Luther's father, after he became a miner, rose by industry and effort from the condition of a peasant to that of a burgher or free citizen. He commenced his career at Mansfeld in penury, but with a force of character that could not leave him in that state. My parents,' says Luther, were, in the beginning, right poor. My father was a poor mine-digger, and my mother did carry her wood on her shoulders; and after this sort did they support us, their children. They had a sharp, bitter experience of it; no one would do likewise now.'

It was not till about seventeen years afterwards, when Luther was a member of the university, that his father had the means of paying the expenses of his education. His honesty, good sense, energy and decision of character won for him the respect of his fellow-citizens. He was open-hearted and frank, and was wont to follow the convictions of his understanding, fearless of consequences. His firmness was characterized by severity, sometimes approaching to obstinacy.

The maiden name of Luther's mother was Margaret Lindemann. She was born at Neustadt, a small town directly south of Eisenach, and west of Gotha. Her father, who had been a burgher there, had removed from that place to Eisenach. It was, no doubt, here that Luther's father formed an acquaintance with her. The circumstance that three of her brothers were liberally educated would seem to indicate that she belonged to an intelligent family. Melancthon says, 'She had many virtues agreeing to her sex; and was

especially notable for her chaste conversation, godly fear, and diligent prayer, insomuch that other honorable women looked upon her as a model of virtue and honesty.'

Luther's parents bestowed great care upon his early training. In the strictest sense, he was brought up in the fear of God, and with reverence for the then existing institutions of religion. The intentions of his parents were of the most laudable character; the faults of their discipline were those of the age in which they lived. They were highly conscientious, earnest and zealous in the discharge of their parental duties. But the age was one of rudeness and severity, and they themselves had more talent than culture, more force and sternness of character than skill in awakening and fostering the generous impulses of childhood. Their discipline was, almost exclusively, one of law and authority. The consequence was, that Martin, instead of feeling at ease and gamboling joyfully in their presence, became timid and shy, and was kept in a state of alarm, which closed up the avenues of his warm and naturally confiding heart. Once,' says he, did my father beat me so sharply, that I fled away from him, and was angry against him, till, by diligent endeavor, he gained me back.' 'Once did my mother, for a small nut, beat me till the blood came forth.' Their intent and

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purpose were of the best sort; but they knew not how to put a difference between dispositions, and to order their discipline accordingly; for that it should be exercised in a way that the apple might be put with the rod.'

To this rigid domestic discipline is to be traced, in a measure, his being long subject to sudden alarms, or being harsh and violent when he rose above them. Though in later life he was fully aware that many errors had been committed in his domestic training; and though, as he himself says, he tried in vain to remove all the effects of it upon his feelings and habits, still he found in it much more to approve than to condemn. Alluding to his own case, and that of others of his age, he says: 'Children should not be entreated too tenderly of their parents, but should be forced to order and to submission, as were their parents before them.'

The fact that, from three or four brothers, Martin alone was designated for a liberal education, is sufficient proof that he gave some early indications of talent. It is also evident that the father took a religious view of this subject and desired for his son something higher and better than mere worldly distinction. An early writer states, that he had heard from the relations of Luther at Mansfeld, that the father was often known to pray earnestly at the bedside of

his son, that God would bless him and make him useful. Mathesius says that Luther's father, not only for his own gratification, but especially for the benefit of his son, frequently invited the clergymen and school-teachers of the place to his house. Thus were domestic influences brought in aid, in every suitable way, to form a taste for moral and intellectual culture.

Mansfeld was situated in a narrow valley along the brook Thalbach, skirted by hills on both sides. From that part of the town where Luther's father resided, it was some distance to the schoolhouse, which was situated on a hill. The house is still standing, and the first story of it remains unaltered. One writer says (on what authority we do not know), that Lather commenced going to school at the age of seven. Certainly he was so young that he was carried thither by older persons. When forty-four years old, two years before his death, he wrote on the blank leaf in the Bible of Nicholas Oemler, who had married one of his sisters, the twentyfourth verse of the 14th chapter of John, and under it: To my good old friend, Nicholas Oemler, who more than once did carry me in his arms to school and back again, when I was a small lad, neither of us then knowing that one brother-in-law was carrying another in his arms.' In this school, though its teachers were frequently guests at his father's house, he was brought under a much harsher discipline than he had been subject to at home. It was not without allusion to his own experience, that he afterwards speaks of a class of teachers, who hurt noble minds by their vehement storming, beating and pounding, wherein they treat children as a jailor doth convicts.' He somewhere says, that he was once flogged fifteen times in a single forenoon at school. Again, he says, 'I have seen, when I was a boy, divers teachers who found their pleasure in beating their pupils.' The schools were purgatories, and the teachers were tyrants and task-masters.'

The injurious manner in which such treatment acted upon his fears is illustrated by an anecdote related by Luther in bis Commentary on Genesis. When I was a lad, I was wont to go out with my companions begging food for our sustentation while we were at the school. At Christmas, during divine service, we went around among the small villages, singing from house to house, in four parts, as we were wont, the hymn on the child Jesus born at Bethlehem. We came by chance before the hut of a peasant who lived apart at the end of the village; and when he heard us singing, he came out, and after the coarse and harsh manner of the peasants, said, 'Where are you, boys!' at the same time bringing us a few saus

ages in his hand. But we were so terrified at these words, that we all scampered off, though we knew no good reason why, save that from the daily threats and tyranny practiced by the teachers toward their pupils at that time, we had learned to be timid.' This incident, which has commonly been referred to the time when Luther was at Magdeburg, probably belongs to the period of his earlier childhood at Mansfeld. For it was when he was 'a small boy,' and was under severe teachers, which seems not to have been the case except at Mansfeld. The circumstance that Luther was then living at his father's house, will be no objection, if we consider the customs of the times and the poverty of the family at that early period. We are elsewhere informed that Luther was then accustomed to attend funeral processions as a singer, for which he received a groschen (about three cents), each time.

The school at Mansfeld, at that time, was taught by one master, assisted by two members of the church choir, that is, two theological students, who, for a small stipend, attended on the daily services of the church. Here it becomes necessary to describe the character of the lower schools of Germany at the close of the fifteenth century. They were called 'trivial schools,' because originally the first three of the seven liberal arts, namely, grammar, rhetoric, and logic, were taught in them.

At this time, however, and particularly at Mansfeld, a little monkish Latin, the pieces of music commonly sung at church, and the elements of arithmetic, constituted the studies of the lower schools. These schools were all taught by a master assisted by theological students and candidates for some of the lower clerical offices. But as nearly all the offices of state at that time were in the hands of the clergy, there was a general rush to the schools on the part of all who were seeking to rise above the common walks of life. The great mass of the youth were wholly destitute of education. All the others, except a few from the sons of the rich, went through a clerical or ecclesiastical course of instruction. No matter to what offices they were aspiring, they must study under the direction of the church and under the tuition of monks and priests, or candidates for the priestly office.

The arrangements of the schools were these: The teachers, and the pupils who were from abroad, occupied large buildings with gloomy cells. A sombre monastic dress distinguished them both from other persons. A large portion of the forenoon of each day was devoted to the church. At high mass all must be present. The boys were educated to perform church ceremonies, while but

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