the name of Mauritania Sitifensis to the eastern portion, with Sitifis for a capital, and retained the old name for the western portion, with Cæsarea for its capital as heretofore. But the separation must have been more nominal than real, for the two provinces had the same troops, and sometimes they were both administered by the same governor. Sitifis suffered during the insurrection of Firmus, the chief of a powerful Moorish tribe, A.D. 369, and was partly destroyed by an earthquake, A.D. 419. Like most of the cities and towns in North Africa, it fell a victim to the Vandal and Arab invasions, but recovered its position at a later period. In the Middle Ages it was still prosperous, for El Bekri speaks of Sitifis as in a flourishing condition and thickly populated. But in his time the city walls, which had been noted for great solidity and thoroughly restored during the Byzantine occupation, no longer existed.

The history of the rise, progress, and decline of a people is generally divided into periods, sometimes dynastic, at other times tribal or accidental. Roman history, after the fall of the Republic, is divisible into several periods. We have the Empire under the Cæsars, including the Flavian epoch, which covers twenty-seven years under the reigns of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. The line of the so-called twelve Cæsars terminates with Domitian, but Nero, as the last representative of the Julian family, should be the sixth and last of the Cæsars, his successors, Galba and Otho, who preceded the Flavian family, being created emperors for their services to the State, and not for dynastic or family reasons. After the twelve Cæsars we have the rule of the Emperors Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian, all raised to the purple for distinguished services, civil or military. Then came the age of the Antonines under the imperial rule of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus. And lastly a long line of emperors, selected sometimes on the score of distinction in the Senate or on the field of battle, but generally as nominees of party factions. This last period covers more than 263 years, commencing with the death of Commodus and terminating with the occupation of Carthage by Genseric, A.D. 439, and the sacking of Rome, A.D. 455.

In the first chapter of this outline of North African history, an attempt has been made to trace the causes which contributed to the invasion of the country and its occupation by the Romans.

Its progress under the Cæsars, the successful establishment of a form of government adapted to the traditional habits of the native races, and the permanent settlement of a military force on the frontier, have been the subject of inquiry in this second chapter. We have now reached a period which demands more than one chapter for its special consideration-a long era of peace and prosperity, of good government, and of a higher tone prevailing in municipal as well as in domestic life. Verily for Africa this was the Golden Age of Empire.

55

CHAPTER III

AFRICA UNDER TRAJAN

A.D. 97-117

THE history of North Africa, during the eighty-three years that Trajan and his three successors sat on the throne of the Cæsars, may truly be said to be written on stone. In nearly every province of the Empire, which extended almost to the gates of India, the names of these illustrious rulers figure largely on ruined monuments in far distant lands. In Africa this is especially the case. Were it not for inscriptions on panel or frieze, on milliary stone or votive pedestal, we should have but a poor record of Trajan's magnificence as a ruler, or of his solicitude for the welfare of his colonists and protection of native tribes. Nor should we have reliable information about the honours bestowed upon him by all classes of his subjects for deeds of thoughtfulness and beneficence, Among the first acts of Trajan's reign was the regulating the supply of corn from Africa, and framing edicts for the administration of justice to the producer and the merchant in their commercial transactions with Rome. For a long period not only Rome, but Italy also, had depended upon large shipments of corn from abroad, and had looked to Egypt and Africa for one third at least of their annual requirements, equivalent to about six million bushels. Italy and Spain provided the rest. The African provinces were called upon to deliver a certain amount of produce in the form of imperial tribute, under the superintendence of a high functionary who resided at Carthage. Some years ago M, Renier discovered at Kalama (Guelma) an inscription of the time of Trajan, which clearly showed that this important officer of state was charged with the control of the wheat supply to the metropolis. The small amount produced in Italy was only sufficient for the soldiers. War in Africa meant famine in Rome, and this was an evil to be guarded against at all costs. Historians

inform us of scarcity and distress in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. Under Claudius there was dearth of corn for three consecutive years, and famine caused great hardship in various parts of the Empire during the rule of Domitian and some of his successors. Under the later emperors there are records of several others, but one may reasonably suppose that the admirable system of corn storage in years of plenty, inaugurated by Trajan, lessened the evil in a time of need. During his struggles with Cæsar Pompey stopped the export. Such was the distress in the capital that the populace implored Cæsar to terminate his differences with his rival. A treaty was then arranged, the chief condition being that grain-ships were to be allowed to leave the African ports and to cross the Mediterranean unmolested.

It is difficult in these days of abundant food supply, and with the control of so large a portion of the earth's surface to meet the growing requirements of mankind, to measure the anxiety of the Roman people when the days of harvesting were drawing near. Their very existence was at one period at the mercy of the waves, and tempestuous weather off the ports of Africa or on the coasts of Sicily and Spain was too often the cause of deep anxiety in the metropolis. As far back as the time of Caius Gracchus, the socialist of his time and hero of the hour, poor citizens were allowed their doles of wheat at half the current prices in the market, and what were known as tessera frumentaria, equivalent to modern soup and coal tickets, were distributed freely by civil functionaries to all persons in need. So pauperising a measure attracted to the capital the idle and worthless from all parts of Italy, and ultimately created an evil which the earlier emperors had great difficulty in checking. It was not likely that the populace would remain satisfied till they had ultimately acquired the right of demanding bread unstinted and without payment, nor was it possible for the resources of the treasury to be equal to supplying a demand which was both arbitrary and impolitic. In the last days of the Republic no less than 320,000 persons claimed their weekly doles, and it required all the popularity of a Cæsar and the combined efforts

Tacitus, Ann. iii. 54: Vita populi Romani per incerta maris et tempestatum quotidie volvitur.

of the Senate and the wealthier classes to reduce the number

to 150,000. This number was increased to 200,000 by Augustus, who, according to Suetonius, was personally inclined to abolish for ever this objectionable custom.'

The general fertility and capabilities of the soil of North Africa are attested by numerous authors. According to Plutarch, the town of Leptis alone, after Cæsar's decisive victory at Thapsus, was condemned to a fine of 2,500,000 pounds of oil; and Hirtius, who accompanied Cæsar on this expedition, tells us that this was a very moderate demand. The use of oil was indispensable for lamps as well as for baths. For the latter purpose the consumption in the days of the Cæsars was enormous, and the production of this article, imposed as a tax on Africa for the benefit of Rome, amounted annually to about 300,000 English gallons. Tacitus also mentions that Vespasian, in disputing the throne with Vitellius, conceived the project of invading Africa by sea and land, and seizing the granaries. Onthe death of his rival he charged with wheat every ship of the Empire. At Rusicada (Philippeville) may still be seen the remains of enormous granaries; and we learn that when Cæsar's army landed in the neighbourhood of Leptis, an immense wheat supply stored at Thysdrus (El-Djem) was placed at the service of the troops.

Pliny the Elder is profuse in his praises of Africa, and tells us that the climate is so good, so kind, and so beneficial, that after the seed is sown the land is not visited for nine months, and then the corn is cut down and laid on the threshing-floors; the reason being that the drought keeps down all weeds, and the dews that fall by night are sufficient to refresh and nourish the corn. In another of his comments 2 he says that there is a city called Tacape (Gabes) in the midst of the sands, the neighbourhood of which is so fruitful that it passes wonder and is incredible. There may be seen a mighty date-tree under which grows an olive, under that a fig-tree, and that overspreads a pomegranate under the shade whereof is a vine, and under the compass thereof they sow corn and then herbs, all in one and the same year. The vines in the neighbourhood bear twice a year and yield ripe grapes for a double vintage. Once again, 2 Pliny, Hist. Nat. xviii. 22.

Suetonius, Aug. 42.