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opening and shutting the door, sweeping out twice a month, strewing the floor with straw in winter, and carrying the doctor's books for him back and forth. The registrar, as said above, was an officer of later date. As the institution grew he became a necessity, the syndicus being then no longer equal to the extra service which pertains to the office of secretary.

The general nuntius was simply a university messenger, having charge of the messages, and performing other kindred duties imposed by the rector, including the transmission of money and goods sent to students. There were also in course of time nuntii representing scholars of each general district and chosenby them-nuntii majores and nuntii minores. The first named were merchants. or bankers, who assumed to pay money to students as forwarded by their parents from distant regions, or who lent them money on their own account; while those of second rank were plying messengers, actually traversing the country, or even the continent, with consignments of money or goods. In some cases they were charged with the care and safe delivery of younger students themselves.

Subordinates.-Besides the officers, so called, there were several classes of persons under control of the university, and charged with duties not so official in the general sense and yet important. Chief among them were the following:. (1) The librarii, whose work it was to make the sale of books for privateindividuals, their compensation consisting of a percentage on the sales made.

(2) The stationarii, who performed the several duties of publisher, bookseller, and keeper of a circulating library. The stationarius often employed the persons who wrote the books which were in demand, and would then either sell, or even lend them for a consideration made secure by a sufficient deposit, the amount being determined by a board of university appointment, year by year, composed of four masters and four principal booksellers, who were also made responsible for the absolute correctness of each copy sold or loaned. The stationer must also inform the university in congregation assembled of his desire to sell a given book to a specified stranger, so that if important to do so they could prohibit and prevent its sale. Moreover, to prevent any wrong, to those who had intrusted them with the loan of a book or books, booksellers were forbidden to sell such book or books without the owner's consent to another dealer until after a four days' exposure for sale "at the Black Friars' Convent during sermon time."

Under this head Rashdall states, in illustration of the amount of book business done, that "in 1323 there were (in Paris) twenty-eight sworn booksellers, besides keepers of bookstalls in the open, who were intrusted to the sale and loan of books of small value. The statutes required every theologian to bring a copy of the Bible or Sentences with him, at least during the first four years of his attendance. Many college statutes required the student attending logic or philosophy lectures to have a copy of the text."

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(3) There was also a troop of parchment makers, illuminators, and binders, as also, later on, paper makers and sellers; all of them, in itke manner, under university supervision. According to Rashdall, the parchment makers were obliged to bring the bales of parchment, on their arrival in Paris, to the Hall of the Mathurines to be taxed' or valued by the four sworn parchmenters" of the university under supervision of the rector, who also visited the great fair of St. Deny's for the like purpose. The parchment had to remain at the Mathurines for twenty-four hours, during which it might only be sold at the appointed rate to members of the university.

It is also an interesting fact in this connection that after a while, with a greed ED 1904 M-34

not uncommon in those times, a tax upon all parchment sold in Paris became a most important perquisite of the rector's office.

(4) Finally, a class of unlearned surgeons (or chirurgeons) and the body of apothecaries were placed under the supervision of the medical faculty, and thus became a means of swelling the ranks of the university men of the time.

IV. THE NATIONS-ORIGIN, POWERS, ETC.

Hitherto the "nations" have been mentioned incidentally only, because they were not, as at Bologna, the university, in effect, and could be left until we had a quite full understanding of what were the governing elements of the institution. As loose aggregations of students they had existed for some little time. But they found no place in history prior to 1249, and were not so many in number as at Bologna. From the first they were limited to four only, and bore the name, in each case, of the nationality which predominated, viz: The French nation, the Norman, the Picardian, and the English. The Normans and Picards were each limited to their own narrow boundaries, while the French nation included all of the Latin races, and the English nation embraced the Germans and all who came from countries in the north and east of Europe. The numbers were at times very unequal, and such inequalities now and then gave rise to schisms and secessions, with appeals to Rome for independence under a new head and new name. The faculties, especially the faculty of arts, suffered embarrassment from this a number of times, the French members electing a head of their own, and the members of the other three nations agreeing upon some one to represent them collectively. Indeed, such troubles were so common that in 1266, on an appeal to the papal legate from a dissatisfied nation, a constitutional right was granted to secede from the union and to choose a head of its own, subject to the approval of a board of arbitrators composed of three senior theologians and the four senior canonists in the university. Besides the students in attendance upon the university, the nations included the masters in the faculty of arts. Why these, and none from the faculties of theology, law, or medicine, was for a long time an occasion of no little speculation among those who have interested themselves in the history of the university, but has seemed to me simple enough, and is made very clear by Father Denifle in his exhaustive account.

(1) RELATIONS OF ARTS DEPARTMENT, ONLY, WITH THE NATIONS. Briefly stated, the reasons for the association of the masters in this one department with the members of the nations, to the exclusion of masters in other faculties, are these: First of all, the studies embraced in the faculty of arts were in those days regarded as only preparatory to the professional courses. Even philosophy, according to its great master, Abelard, was treated as but a stepping-stone to theology. The masters considered themselves as still students, looking higher. Secondly, the nations embraced not a few men of large attainments, brought to Paris for special studies, who found it desirable to share in the advantages of various kinds enjoyed by the national organizations and were in every way worthy associates for the masters in the arts department. They were all learners together. True, there were distinctions made in the practical workings of the national organizations-in the more important affairs, I mean, such as the choice of officers. Here the students without rank or title were without voice. Even the arts masters were themselves subject to limitations as electors in certain cases-e. g., in the choice of the chief officer. It was not enough that they were masters in the faculty of arts; they must either have the degree of bachelor of theology or have gone through

courses of reading in theology, or at least have taught as one of the masters in the arts department for a period of six years. In other words, in order to vote for rector they must have made proficiency in what was regarded the very highest field of study or have made an honorable record in the work of instruction. Thirdly, it becomes plain enough, after a statement of the foregoing facts, why it was that a master or doctor in one of the professional departments was not associated with the masters of arts and the body of students in the nations: He had passed through the more purely disciplinary stage.

(2) ORGANIZATION OF THE FOUR NATIONS.

After much discussion, running through a long period, it may now be considered settled that at the head of each nation, when duly organized, there was a "procurator," and at the head of the several nations, acting in harmony for a common need, there was a "rector."

As already stated, the rector could only be chosen from among and by the masters in the arts department. His functions were, of course, those of a presiding and administrative officer. After a little while he is found also acting as the executive head of the faculty of arts, so that orders and general communications were officially addressed "To the rector, masters, and scholars." By 1289 A. D. he had passed the stage of inferiority to the heads of the professional faculties (because of his connection with the faculty of arts), and was mentioned by the cardinal legate as being properly among them and their equal in rank. He had, in fact, come to a virtual precedence, in spite of the opposition of the chancellor of Notre Dame, who still claimed the sole prerogative of examining bachelors and issuing the license to teach (the jus ubique docendi) to "licentiates." And later still, it is not known just when, the departments of jurisprudence and of medicine were brought under his supervision. But it was not until after other years (in 1341) that he also gained recognition as supreme over the faculty of theology (whose dean up to that time had presided over all general assemblies), and thus became rector and acknowledged head of the whole university, entitled, in making university announcements to use the formula, “Nos rector et universitas magistrorum et scholarium."

Quite naturally the faculty of theology had been reluctant to consent to this supremacy, and had succeeded in postponing it thus long. It only came at last through a manifestation of overwhelming odds. The nations and the great faculty of arts were the compelling force, and the Pope himself, seeing the inevitable, in 1358 addressed a bull" To the rectors and masters of the university."

IV. GENERAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY FACULTIES. We have already seen that the several faculties at Paris were near to each other in the time of their inauguration; that while the faculty of arts and the faculty of theology were practically begun at one and the same time, and were for a while all there was of the institution, the others were not slow in following their example; and that in the matter of a complete organization these last were earlier than the faculty of theology, which seems to have been without a dean of its own until the end of the thirteenth century.

But when all were duly organized, the several faculties were similar in their constitution, had officers that were alike in title and function, were under a common general direction, and worked in harmony as one comprehensive institu

The several faculties were also alike in the constitution of the professorate; having each of them professors and lecturers, and dividing the first-mentioned class into professors "ordinary" and professors "extraordinary," though inaugurating the latter as giving lectures "cursory "-whether because outside of the fixed and necessary courses, or because less formal in make-up and delivery, does not appear. In the faculties of law the books used as authorities were also treated as "ordinary" and cursory;" in the faculty of canon law, the ordinary being confined to the Decretum of Gratian, while all others were regarded as cursory; or, more correctly speaking, lectures based on other text-books were so designated.

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In the other faculties the same books could be made use of in the delivery of lectures both ordinary and cursory; though a distinction was made in the time of delivery, the rule requiring that the ordinary lectures should be given by masters during the morning and on certain days-in the faculty of arts during the earliest hour-and further providing that in summer the ordinary lectures might continue longer than in winter, even until the horn for dinner. Lectures by masters of theology and of canon law were also given in the morning; and the former were expected to choose an hour later than that assigned to the masters in the faculty of arts, in order that these last could attend the theological lectures after the delivery of their own, should they desire.

At first the ordinary lectures were, as a rule, given by masters and doctors, but after a while by bachelors as well; in course of time the teaching in the faculty of theology was "almost entirely abandoned" to bachelors; and the lectures were often, quite contrary to the general rule concerning ordinary lectures, given in the afternoon. Except on particular holidays, cursory lectures could be delivered at any time when ordinary lectures were not in progress, whether by a master or a bachelor. Moreover, in vacation, when the ordinary lectures had been discontinued, as usual, cursory lectures, when not contrary to the usage concerning holidays, could be given at any hour of the day.

As relates to place, cursory lectures had the advantage of being deliverable anywhere, whereas ordinary lectures must as a rule be given in the recognized halls of the faculty or nation to which the lecturer or at least the subject belonged.

Originally the little island in the very heart of the city, and on which Notre Dame was built, had been the center of school work; but in course of time, as they multiplied, the schools crossed over the stream and spread themselves over a wide area. At the time now under consideration they were mostly in the Rue du Fouarre, and it will be interesting to take a peep at some of them at the hour of beginning work in the morning. But in order to do this there must be early rising, for, though the dawn has not fully come, the bells of Notre Dame have sounded and the thousands of students from all the countries of Europe have taken warning and are already gathering from river sides and the surrounding heights. The street has been closed to wagons and whatever else would disturb the coming lecturers. The sturdy gatemen are busy opening and closing the great doors for the eager throng, some plainly and some richly clad, with daggers and poniards in view, and all of them with note-book in hand, besides a manuscript copy of the author to be interpreted, if able to buy or borrow one.

Entering the school most conveniently reached, we find the professor already at his rude desk and the throng of students crowded together on the ground, with note-book and pencil in hand, ready for the first word of the lecture after the morning's thanksgiving. It seems that the lecturer belongs to the faculty of arts, for he wears a black gown reaching down to his heels, and before him

are several text-books, as is common with members of that faculty. The students are on the ground instead of benches or chairs, first, because it is cheaper; secondly, because it is wholesome to keep as near as may be to Mother Earth; and, lastly," that they may escape all temptation to pride."

And now the lecture begins, for it is full 6 o'clock, and at 9 the hall will be needed for other lecturers. His reading is from one of Aristotle's philosophies, and at the mention of that great master's name every face brightens and every eye kindles with a new light. The reading is slow and with the most distinct utterance, while the pencils are exceedingly active the moment the professor's interpretations and comments begin, that no word may be lost. The tout ensemble is deeply interesting, and if we each had a comfortable seat we should be loath to leave until night. But the hour of 9 has struck and we reluctantly go forth.

I.-FACULTY OF ARTS.

As in most American colleges and so-called universities of to-day, the faculty of arts in the University of Paris was of a mixed character, including so large a proportion of youthful students doing much elementary, as well as those doing secondary or college and university work proper, as we would term it nowadays, that it never attained to a rank beyond the secondary, in the view of those who were connected with the professional departments. And this, notwithstanding its supremacy by reason of greater numbers, and its direct association with the "nations" in matters of general administration.

As relates to the courses of instruction, such a thing as a definite curriculum seems not to have been thought of until some years after the first beginnings of the institution. Each teacher gave himself to instruction in what he assumed to have superior knowledge and drew together pupils as he could, and taught them in his own fashion. But all were careful to present, not their own ideas and results of their own inquiries and original investigations, but simply what some authority had said of the subject. The methods of Irnerius and Abelard involved some originality of powers and a great amount of intellectual labor.

The first step in the matter of a grouping of studies other than that of their division into trivium and quadrivium is credited to the Cardinal-Legate Robert de Courçon. Whether he was an Englishman or not is of small consequence. His plan of studies, examinations, and rewards was a decided innovation upon the time-worn rule of no rule, and entitles him to enduring honors. The revolution which led to real university work came of the intense interest in dialecties aroused by Abelard. As a study prominent in the field of the trivium, it rose at once to a new dignity, and did great service in partially rescuing the learned world from the ancient habit of accepting without examination. Of course none of the old-time studies were omitted. The changes were in the proportion of time accorded to them, respectively. Thus, instruction in the Latin language was limited to grammar, and it was to be taught from the text-books of the Priscians-great favorites at that time. In the field of rhetoric, little or no attention was given to the orators, poets, or historians of old Rome, and philosophy was made to include the several fields of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astrology-in other words, the entire quadrivium, though without specification of the authors recognized-besides that vast field which of necessity embraced metaphysics, ethics, and natural philosophy.

Doubtless there were many text-books for some of the branches taught, but in logic and philosophy Aristotle was regarded as so supreme that there seem to have been no scholars bold enough to make even an effort at competition. There were those who offered introductions to his several great works, as well as others who annotated and interpreted them; and there were competitors

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