but also others who wish to qualify for becoming teachers of domestic economy in secondary schools for girls.

Private schools.-The entire number of these schools is about 120, having altogether about 13,000 pupils. Started by private persons or associations, or by communities, they have had perfect freedom to develop in various directions, but have, at the same time, suffered from a lack of guidance and control, and, moreover, often felt the stress of money difficulties. These disadvantages have not remained unnoticed. In 1875 the State made them a grant of $8,000, which grant afterwards became annual and at various times raised, until now it amounts to $93,000. The conditions for enjoying the advantages of this grant are mainly that a certain number of pupils be instructed free of cost or at reduced terms, that the school in question submit to the control of the ecclesiastical department, and that the community or private persons contribute a sum at least equal to the grant made by the State. This annual grant is not to exceed $800 for each school, or for schools instructing in domestic economy at most $938. At present 103 schools enjoy such grants from the State, their combined number of pupils attending the regular classes being 10,694 (besides perhaps 3,000 in the preparatory classes). The fees paid are very different, varying from $11 to $40 in the lowest classes and from $29 to $67 in the highest, all per annum, the classes preparing for university entrance charging even more. In view of the virtually free instruction given to boys in the State secondary schools, these fees must be considered very high.

Several of the private schools for girls have their own school buildings, others are compelled to employ ordinary dwelling houses, which, especially from a sanitary point of view, often leave much to be desired. The length of the ordinary school course varies, but is generally seven to eight years. The number of schools with seven or with eight classes is about the same. Some few schools have only five or six classes. Almost all schools have two or three preparatory classes, in which, with but few exceptions, boys also are taught. About twenty schools have one or more continuation classes.

The subjects of instruction are chiefly the same as in the State Normal School for Girls, one or more additional subjects being, however, introduced into some schools. Very varying is the position given to the different subjects, especially as regards foreign languages. In most schools French is the fundamental language, in others German. During the last few years though there seems to be a tendency to make the French and German languages change places, several schools having of late made German the fundamental language. English is usually the third language taught, though in some schools it ranks second.

The continuation classes are formed for various purposes and therefore very differently arranged, some being intended to prepare for university entrance or for admission to the Higher Training College for Lady Teachers, others to train teachers, or to give the pupils greater insight into various subjects. The university entrance examination can be passed at five of the schools for girls (four in Stockholm and one at Malmö). The right of passing this examination was given to women in 1870. At first very few availed themselves of this right, but during each of the last three years the number has been 50 or more.

In most of the schools there are both men and lady teachers. The men, who, with few exceptions, are teachers also in the State secondary schools for boys, give comparatively few lessons, and are paid per hour. The salaries paid to lady teachers are, as a rule, very low, especially considering the demands made on them. On an average they do not exceed $270 per annum. Most head mistresses get but $320 to $400, besides residence and fuel. A raising of the salaries has, however, in 1902 been decreed by the State as a condition for the receiving of State grants. There are two institutions for pensioning lady teachers.

3. HIGHER EDUCATION.

Sweden has two State universities, viz, in Upsala, founded 1477 (the oldest in Scandinavia), and in Lund, founded 1668, chiefly with a view to promote a closer union of the provinces then newly acquired from Denmark with the rest of Sweden. Both universities are thus, as in England, located in country towns. To make up for the lack of a State university in Stockholm, the capital, private munificence has there established a private university; the same thing has been done also in Gottenborg, the second city of Sweden. Besides this, there has existed in Stockholm since 1815 a medical faculty, the Caroline Institute, founded and supported by the State.

THE STATE UNIVERSITIES.

The universities established by the State are, as already mentioned, the two complete universities of Upsala and Lund and the Caroline Institute in Stockholm, the last named forming only a medical faculty, the greatest of its kind in the country. Like the other State schools, these institutions also range under the ecclesiastical department.

According to statutes of January 10, 1877 (with some amendments, 1891), the highest superintendence of the universities and the Caroline Institute is exercised by a chancellor appointed by the King on the nomination by electors from the three institutions. The chancellor watches over the observance of the statutes, issues instructions respecting the administration of the finances and estates of the universities, and recommends finally and officially in questions of appointments, and, on the whole, in all such measures concerning the universities as are submitted to the decision of the Government. He does not receive any salary, but is entitled to appoint a salaried chancellor's secretary for his office. The representative of the chancellor, and in certain cases an intermediate authority between him and the local academical authorities, is the vice-chancellor, whose office is filled at the University of Upsala by the archbishop and at the University of Lund by the bishop of the diocese of Lund.

The immediate care and supervision of all that concerns the university is exercised by its rector, who is elected for two years at a time by the greater consistory (ef. below) from among the professors in ordinary, and may be reelected. In the absence of a rector, the office is exercised by a vice-rector who is elected in the same way and for the same length of time.

The rector is assisted in the government of the university by the two academical consistories, in which he is the chairman. The greater consistory consists of all the professors in ordinary, and has the care of all the more important affairs of the university, proposes candidates for the filling of vacant professional chairs, grants stipends, etc. The lesser consistory consists, besides the rector and vice-rector, of five other members who are elected for three years. It has to enforce the observance of the prescribed regulations respecting the lectures and examinations, execute the disciplinary authority of the university, etc. There is also a finance committee for the administration of the purely economical affairs of the university.

According to the statutes at present in force (confirmed 1876, altered 1891) the teachers of each of the two State universities are distributed with respect to the different sciences they represent upon four faculties, viz, the faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. The last named is further divided into two sections, viz, the section of humanistics and that of mathematics and natural sciences. Each faculty or section consists of its ordinary and associate professors, who every academical year, from among its members, appoint a chairman, called "dean." The degrees conferred by every faculty are those of candidate, licentiate, and doctor. Doctors of divinity, however, are named by the Government, without examination. Besides, certain civil-service examinations are passed in the faculties of theology and law.

Professors at the universities are either ordinary or associate, of which the latter have smaller salaries and are not entitled to a pension. There are also permanently appointed laboratory assistants in the various medical and scientific laboratories, an astronomical assistant for each of the observatories, and an assistant in the theological faculty. Besides these, an indefinite number of docents can be appointed for each professorship. The practical instruction in modern languages is given by lecturers. Special teachers, called "instructors," are appointed for the teaching of gymnastics, music, and drawing.

Appointments.-Vacant professorships are filled either on application or by direct appointment. In the former case the position must be publicly announced vacant. When candidates, within a prescribed limit of time, have applied and presented their testimonials of competency, the respective faculty or section, upon the written argumentation of at least three specialists in the subjects concerned, express themselves regarding the fitness and relative competency of the applicants. Then the greater consistory proposes three of these applicants for appointment in the order of their relative merits. Against this recommendation an appeal may be made to the King. After the vice-chancellor and the chancellor have expressed themselves, the appointment is made by the Government. But if there is a prospect of acquiring for the vacant professorship a scientific man known for extraordinary skill, the respective faculty or section may, before the place is publicly declared vacant, by a majority of two-thirds of its members, determine to offer him the position. In such a case the method of procedure is simplified by sending the recommendation of the faculty, together with the opinion of the greater consistory and of the vice-chancellor, to the chancellor, who presents it, together with his own opinion, to the Government for decision. Laboratory and observatory assistants are appointed in a similar way, only that the chancellor makes the final appointment. Docents are appointed by the chancellor on application, or on recommendation by the professor concerned, after the faculty or section in question has given its opinion. The above system of promotion being, in many cases, considered antiquated, the Government has appointed a committee to propose reforms, and this committee has recently (1901) submitted its report, recommending various changes in existing conditions.

The total number of teachers at the universities and the Caroline Institute amounted in 1900 to 289, of whom 76 were professors in ordinary, 56 associates, 20 laboratory and astronomy assistants, lecturers, etc., and 137 docents. Of the 132 ordinary and associate professors, 14 belonged to the faculty of theology, 15 to the faculty of law, 48 to the faculty of medicine, 31 to the humanistic section of the faculty of philosophy, and 24 to the section of mathematics and natural sciences of the same faculty. Of the whole number, 61 belonged to the University of Upsala, 49 to the University of Lund, and 22 to the Caroline Institute.

The salary of the professors in ordinary is $1,608 (with an advance of $134 after five years of service, and another after ten); of the associates, $1,206, likewise with the two said advances. Assistants in the medical faculties receive $1,206, those in the philosophical faculties and observatories $804. The docents have no fixed salaries, but the State has established for their benefit a number of docent stipends of $402 and $322, which, on the recommendation by the respective faculty, are given by the chancellor to deserving docents for a period of three years, subject to extension. The university lecturers in modern languages each receive a yearly fee of $536. Ordinary professors (but not associates) are entitled to a pension of $1,206 to $1,474 on attaining 65 years of age. This latter amount is given to those who have held their professorship ten years at least. In some cases the Riksdag has granted a pension of $804 to associate professors. Widows and children of deceased professors (ordinary or associate), as well as those of any deceased official of the universities, receive pensions from special pension funds, to which every official must contribute.

The academical year begins September 1, and is divided into the autumn term (September 1-December 15) and the spring term (January 15-June 1). Both the ordinary and the associate professors are, as a rule, bound to lecture publicly on their science one hour four days a week. All public instruction, whether by lectures or seminary exercises, is free of charge, but the private instruction given for the most part by the docents is paid for.

The courses of study are at Swedish universities unusually long. On an average six to eight years are required for the degree of licentiate of philosophy, seven years for the candidate's degree in law, nine years for the candidate's degree in theology (for the ordinary examination for holy orders five years), and for licentiate's degree in medicine as much as eleven years. In part, this condition of things depends upon the comprehensive studies which are required, but in part also upon the somewhat unpractical arrangements in regard to teaching. Attempts have been made during the last few years to find a remedy for the latter defect by the establishment of the socalled propædeutical courses for the preparatory examinations, and at present a royal committee is busy with working out a plan for the reorganization of the academical examinations.

Students. To matriculate at the university a student must have passed the university entrance examination (the final examination at a higher state secondary school).

Every student must belong to one of the nation societies, or "landskap," into which the body of students has been divided from olden times for the promotion of industry and morality and for mutual aid. At Upsala there are 13, and at Lund 12 "nations," each comprising in the main students from special parts of the country, and each under the control of an inspector chosen by the society itself from among the ordinary professors of the university. At Upsala these societies usually have their own houses (clubs), and the disposal of pretty large funds; at Lund the students possess in common a large building called the academical society's building. The part played by the nation societies in Swedish student life has been notably great and important.

TABLE 7.-Number of university students in Sweden, a

a According to G. Eneström, and to "Report on the School Question," by N. Höjer, A. Lindhagen, and S. Boije.

b In Stockholm.

The private University of Stockholm.

The number of university students in Sweden during the years 1870-1902 is found in Table 7. As may be seen, the total number has varied very much. The decline of late years must be partly ascribed to a decrease in the number of matriculated students, but partly also to a more rapid completion of required courses. Among the total of 2,529 students in the autumn of 1900, 276 belonged to the theological

faculty, 443 to the law faculty, 514 to the medical, and 1,296 to the philosophical, in which last number are included students preparing for the preliminary examinations hitherto required for entrance into the three other faculties. Among the students of 1903 (spring) there were 89 women.

The total expenses amounted, in 1902, at the University of Upsala to $272,000; at the University of Lund to $152,000, and at the Caroline Institute to $66,000, or, altogether, to $490,000. Of this amount, the universities supplied part from their own funds, viz, the University of Upsala, about $121,000; the University of Lund, about $40,000, and the Caroline Institute, $6,000. As may thus be seen, these establishments possess considerable private means.

PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES.

As already mentioned, two such establishments, called Högskolor, have been founded of late years, viz, in Stockholm and in Gottenborg, of which the former commenced its work in 1878 and the latter in 1891. The higher direction of the affairs of these institutions is confided to special boards of directors under the superintendence of the chancellor of the State universities. The institutions are placed under a Government control, the University of Gottenborg from its beginning, that of Stockholm only since 1904; the statutes are confirmed by the Government and the presidents of the boards are appointed by the same authority for such a time as in each case may be decided. The directors determine, within the amount of money available, what offices shall exist at the university, and the salaries attached to them. The directors have also the power, after hearing the reports of the council of teachers and selected specialists, to appoint professors, either after application or directly; but the appointment must be submitted to the approval of the Government. Docents are appointed by the board upon the recommendation of the council of teachers and after chancellor's hearing.

(A) The University of Stockholm (Stockholms Högskola). The board of directors is constituted in the following way: As aforesaid, the Government appoints 1 member, viz, the president, the Swedish Academy also chooses 1, the Academy of Sciences 2, and the town council of Stockholm 2; the rector of the university is a member ex officio, and the eighth member is chosen by the 7 before mentioned.

The immediate direction of the institution is exercised by the rector (chosen by the council of teachers for two years at a time), and by the council of teachers, consisting of the ordinary teachers or their temporary substitutes. At present only the faculty of mathematics and natural sciences has been established. Besides, there are professorships in the history of art and history of literature, and lectures have been given in history, political economy, and other subjects.

No examinations have been hitherto passed at the university. Its work has been exclusively in the interest of scientific investigation and education. Yet recently a proposition has been made to secure the privilege of examining for university degrees, which may be decided upon by the Government early in 1904.

In the autumn term (1903) there were at the university 9 ordinary professors, 3 temporary teachers, 15 docents, and 7 amanuenses. Of the professors 3 received $1,876, the others from $1,608 to $1,206.

Teachers who have reached 65 years of age and been in the service of the university for at least thirty years have a right to a pension amounting to 70 or 80 per cent of the salary at the time of resignation.

The academical year of the university begins September 1 and is divided into two terms (September 1-December 15 and January 15-June 15). The professors must give two public lectures every week, and impart the instruction and directions necessary for the pupils' studies. Most of them are also directors of some scientific institution. During the years 1901-1903 the average number of students amounted to,