principles on which these different modes depend are all investigated, and thoroughly explained on the blackboard; the more expeditious method pointed out and recommended to the class; and, in further illustration of the rule, one or two other questions of the same kind proposed. Another class of questions are then proceeded with, and so on till the end of the lesson, which it is not expedient to continue more than twenty minutes or half an hour. VI. TEACHING GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. (From the Prefatory note to Teachers, in the Introduction to the Geography and History of British America, by Mr. J. George Hodgins.) In teaching the geography and history of a country, a map of the place described is an almost indispensable necessity. It aids in illustrating the lesson, gives interest to the instruction, and associates in the mind of the pupil the outlines and chief features of the country, with its history, its memorable places, and the achievements of its sons. The Heights of Alma and the Heights of Queenston are historic spots alike to the French and English; but to be enabled to trace the course of the Alma and the Niagara, now so famous in our annals, gives interest to the otherwise dry details, and fixes indelibly in the mind of the pupil the lesson of instruction sought to be imparted by the teacher. Where a large map is not accessible to the teacher, it might be well to direct an expert pupil to draw upon the black board from an atlas, an enlarged outline of the country described, its rivers, mountains, and political divisions. This adds interest and variety to the lesson; and even where maps are available, practice of this kind is a sure means of imprinting upon the memory the boundaries, physical features and peculiarities of outline of the country thus depicted. Where this can be done by the class on a smaller scale, and as an exercise upon paper from time to time,-accompanying the outline with a written sketch of the subject of the lesson,—clearness and accuracy, as well as thoroughness will be acquired. It would greatly facilitate the labor of the teacher were he, before assigning any lesson in geography and history, to test, by a few conversational questions, the pupil's knowledge of his own immediate neighbourhood or residence, or that of the school house the adjacent hills, streams, valleys, roads, country, town or village boundaries, etc. The pupil could thus be led to see that the geography and history contained in the text book was but an aggregate of his own local knowledge collected into a convenient and accessible shape. *VII. FURTHER HINTS ON TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. If a teacher can sketch well, he should draw his own maps upon the black-boardFirst, tracing the outline of the country, he mentions the various kingdoms or seas whose boundaries his chalk is tracing;-second, with a few jottings of his chalk he marks out the principal mountain ranges forming the great ridges or apices of the water sheds ;— third, he traces the rivers winding their way from their mountain source or sources to the great reservoirs of the globe. He pauses for a moment to review his work,-he has sketched out the works of nature as the hand of the Creator has left them; now he has to begin to sketch the works of art and civilization-he has to people the wilderness and to trace the progressive steps of civilization; upon the banks of the tidal rivers he marks the site of the great mercantile cities; on the shores of the mountain streams he plants the names of the oldest industrial cities; on the coal fields he places those mighty manufacturing cities which have almost sprung into existence since the discovery of the steamengine that mightiest monarch of civilization and power, which seems to control the destinies of the world; last of all, he marks the sites of those large towns, which form the market places of the rural population. We said that the work was progressive, every fresh touch of the chalk is associated with some new idea, and every fresh idea has its appropriate association with some line or mark upon the board;—the sketch goes on,-it becomes more and more finished ;-the skeleton becomes lined with sinews, then clothed with flesh and blood;—every fresh step towards completion excites new interest in the minds of the boys,-they wonder how a few jottings can call up the idea of mountain range, or how a winding line can call up the idea of the course of the sparkling river, or how the little mark put for the mountain city, should awaken to their imagina tions, the sound of the flip flap, flip flip, of water mills, and the busy hum of industry; they wonder, but they know not, that the visible picture that their master has drawn with his chalk, would be dull and lifeless without the living moral picture with which it is associated. Such a lesson is complete in its parts and perfect as a whole. Geography properly learned, from beginning to end, is but furnishing to the mind a splendid panorama of the world we live in. Delightful to the young soul is it when thus studied The rivers wind along their circuitous banks, down mountain precipices, over pebbly beds, now clear, now muddy, here broad, there narrow. He sees the whole scene, Alps above Alps, the gentle swelling hill, the lofty peak, the snowy summit, the cloud-capped height. The desert and the forest, the rolling sand, the lofty pines, the groves and vines, all know their places in the picture. The pupil who, in studying geography, thus turns his conceptive faculties to their best use, is furnished with enduring materials of thought. Those who learn but words, must plod their weary way over a barren desert, scarcely relieved by any verdant scene or landscape. How shall scholars be led thus to study? It is not enough that they commit their lessons to memory, and draw maps; though neither of these things should be omitted. It is as much the duty and privilege of the teacher to open the mental eye to the world we live in, as to unloose the tongue to the names of the objects and to the expression of facts. The teacher must have faithful and accurate delineations on his own inner landscape. Words must to him convey meaning distinct and graphic. His own imagination must be trained to fill up the scanty outlines of the text-book. He will never impart a gift he does not possess. If with him geography is but a list of well-remembered questions and answers, vainly will you look to see the mass of his pupils make it any thing else. If, when he draws a map, he looks not beyond the black-board or drawing-paper, neither will his pupils. He should read graphic descriptions-he should give his own mind to the subject. He should in fancy climb mountains, descend craters, explore mines, ascend domes, fish on coral reefs, and dive for pearls. He should skate with the Russ-smoke with the Turk-try the wooden shoe of the French, and toil with his bro. ther Swiss. This will make the unseen real, and his manner of speaking will convey impressions to his class that will insensibly carry them beyond the words. Another exercise which some teachers have found a valuable aid in carrying the minds of their pupils beyond the mere words, is a review by topics. Suppose, for instance, the class to have finished the lessons in the text-book on Europe, and to have reviewed them by the book. Each country may next be given out a topic, and the scholars may be required so to learn it as to be able to go to the outline map and recite it; not in the words of the book, but in an order designated by the teacher. Let them point out the physical, political, and civil features of the country. Suppose the topic to be France. The pupil goes to his outline map, bounds it entirely, points out its mountains, rivers, capes, and promontories; states its government and religion, its civilization and education, the employments, manners, habits, and character of its population, &c. &c.,-brin g ing all his general and statistical knowledge to the recitation. Many pupils, habituated to the exercise, thus digest, systematize, assimilate the previously learned, isolated facts, so as to double, at least, their value and interest. L VIII. VOCAL MUSIC IN SCHOOLS-HOW TAUGHT IN GERMANY. Vocal music is, in Germany, deemed of such importance to all classes, that, for generations, it has been introduced by Government as a prominent branch of popular education. The child enters school at the age of eight years, and remains in the same school until fourteen or fifteen. There seems to be three paramount reasons for making music a branch of school education in Germany and Switzerland. 1st. Its power as a direct means of mental and moral discipline; 2nd. Its attractiveness as an amusement or relaxation from laborious study; 3rd. Its advantages in after-life to the pupil, both as a social and a religious being. In all of these particulars it is considered of great importance; and in the best schools of Leipsic and Dresden, in Saxony-Zurich and Berne, in Switzerland-the popular course has been to adapt each music lesson to one or the other or all of these branches. To be more explicit :-The music-teacher either gives, at one season of the year, his particular attention to instruction in the elements of music and music reading; at another to rehearsal and singing, for relaxation and amusement; and at another to practising the music of the church; or else, as is more generally the case, he combines the three departments in one, and each lesson has its share, viz.: 1st. Practice of the music of the church (choral singing); 2nd. Instruction in musical notation; 3rd. Singing of cheerful and lively juvenile songs for recreation. This arrangement is very pleasing. It affords great variety, and does not become tiresome to the pupils. The pupils begin to study note singing at the age of nine or ten years. Previous to that they sing chiefly or entirely by note. This is considered advantageous until the musical ear is sufficiently trained and cultivated. The scale is first presented to the pupil, not by sight but by sound. The teacher sings it slowly and distinctly till all seem to understand, or at least to get some idea of its construction, and of the comparative relation of sounds, one to another. After explaining something of the formation of the scale, its intervals, &c., the teacher writes it upon the black-board, or calls their attention to it in the book, observing particularly the situation of the semi-tones. He now tells them that these characters (the notes) represent the sounds they have just sung, and that each sound has a name taken from one of the letters of the alphabet. This method is very thorough, although somewhat tedious. The pupils sing almost entirely from books, the black-board being used merely for illustration. The more advanced classes of pupils are improved by the frequent introduction and regular practice of new and interesting music, rather than by dry and unconnected exercises. Much time is spent in the best schools in practising the vowels, merely articulating them, for the purpose of obtaining a good delivery, both in singing and speaking. But one of the pleasantest features of all this is, that the pupils are not wearied by too hard study, or if they become a little fatigued at any time, they know that some delightful recreation is to follow. Variety and entertainment are mingled with instruction, and the pleasure of half an hour's social singing is a sufficient reward for persevering in any of the more laborious and less interesting exercises. The writer was much amused and delighted, on one occasion, to see the young countenances beam with a smile of approbation, amounting to "I thank you, sir," when the teacher, after a lesson of close elementary study, said, "Now, we'll sing something lively," for it is natural to children to love that music best which is most like their own natures-light, joyous, and free. Now they sing briskly, merrily, heartily-because naturally. The little millstream, that has been so long dammed up that it may accumulate strength to drive the heavy wheel, when once more set at liberty goes leaping and dancing and singing along its sparkling way, rejoicing in its freedom. So do these little singers pass from the heavy and useful, but not dull choral practice and elementary confinement, to the merry "Song of the Cuckoo" and "The Lark;" to the "Singer's Song" and the "Song of Father's Birth-day;" to the songs of the season-of the sun and stars; of the Beautiful World and the blessed Giver, God;" with the ever dear and welcome songs of "Vaterland." These are the daily occurrences of the "school-room;" and if you would know how such privileged children prize their school, you have but to step in and hear them merrily singing "No scene of earthly pleasure, Happy school, No hoard of sordid treasure, Happy school, Delight us now so well. Yea, 'tis singing we do prize, Cheerful hearts in accents rise, From my own observations and from the statements of other teachers, I believe that singing is a great element in the government of a school. It draws forth the better feelings of the scholar; it rounds and smooths the rough corners of his nature, and imbues him with a higher respect, and with a greater love for his teacher. But here perhaps a difficulty arises in the minds of some teachers, in regard to the capability of imparting the requisite instruction in this department. There need be no difficulty, for every teacher of ordinary talent and acquirements, (and if there any not having this amount, they have most certainly greatly mistaken their calling,) can with a very little exertion so acquaint himself with the simpler rudiments of vocal music, as to be able to impart the necessary instruction. "But I can't learn if I try;" entirely wrong; every person endowed with only ordinary capabilities can learn to sing. There is a musical germ implanted in the mind of every individual, and it is only from the fact of not permitting it to develope itself that the person does not become a singer. All individuals cannot probably become good singers or the best judges of musical performances; yet they can arrive at such a degree of attainment, that they will be interested, not only in listening to, but also in participating in such exercises." Cato Socrates even in extreme old age learned to play on musical instruments. when eighty years old thought proper to learn the Greek language; and Plutarch was between seventy and eighty commenced the study of the Latin. Nothing of the kind, whatever the period of life, is impossible for a person of energy and indomitable perseverance. And such a person the teacher should be; and such the successful teacher is. IX. THE STUDY OF BOTANY. In all good schools there ought at least to be one Botany class. The study should be entered upon not later than March, so that the scholars may be sufficiently acquainted with the scientific terms, &c., in the space before the spring flowers appear. The study of botany is liable to become dull, in the absence of living illustrations and the teacher will soon find it necessary to enliven his recitations by black-board drawings, dried specimens, cuttings of wood, &c. But no artificial preparations will satisfy the learner in science. As indications of Spring multiply, he goes forth into the fields and forests to watch and welcome the first open blossom of the season. This, with us about Cincinnati, is the well known "Pepper and Salt," (Erigenia bulbosa, Nutt.) The first discovery of this little springborn plant is a triumph, and the delight which our young botanists express ong that occasion is altogether extravagant, and quite surprising to the uninitiated. The appearance of the first flower of spring, then, brings us our first relief from the dry abstractions of science, and affords us our first exercise in botanical analysis. When assembled again in the class room, each pupil bearing a specimen of the plant in hand, the teacher directs them all to examine attentively the several parts of it, and to ascertain the nature of the root, stem, leaves, and other appendages, until they are able to describe with promptness, in appropriate terms, when called. A few interrogatories will show whether these things have been correctly learned. Then, in succession, they each resolve the several steps in the analysis. This process, if conducted without error, leads promptly to the Natural Order of the plant under examination. The same process with the "Conspectus of the Genera" under that order, conducts to the genus of our plant. In order to confirm the results of the analysis, we recommend to the student the careful comparison of his specimen with the characters given at the head of the Natural Order, before proceeding to the analysis of the genera; and the same comparison with the generic characters before the study of the species. This method of analysis conducted according to specific rules, and leading to a speedy and accurate result, affords an exciting rational amusement, as well as an invigorating intellectual exercise; and may often be exchanged in the class-room for the ordinary recitations, with much advantage to the learners. For, in tracing this little plant (Erigenia) to its proper place in the Natural system, we do effectually learn its every important character, and put to the test nearly all the science we have previously acquired. Thus the student learns to recognise at once and forever, the tuberous root, hollow stem, sheathing petioles, the umbel, involucre, &c., of the Umbelliferæ. So with regard to any other plant. In regard to flowers, how much they may do not only to "beautify the earth," but also, with smiling looks and fragrant voices, to contribute to man's enjoyment and promote his cheerfulness. We are well aware that some affect to despise the culture of flowers, regarding them as useless products. But to him who "Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks Sermons in stones and good in everything," there will be a sincere delight attending the culture of the flowers which speak so unequivocally of the goodness of the great Creator who has made the flowers- "To comfort man; to whisper hope, Whene'er his faith is dim; For whoso careth for the flowers, Will much more care for him!" Whenever we see a house, with its neat flower garden and well trained vines and shrub. bery, whether it be in the thriving village or away from the "busy haunts and noisy shops," up among the hills or mountains, we always feel that the indwellers have hearts that feel for others woes, "God who careth for flowers," will not be unmindful of those who appreciate the beauties as well as the utilities of his handiwork. What a bright, joyous, cheerful aspect would the earth wear, if all who dwell thereon would plant and cultivate a few flowers? It would not only tend to "strew man's pathway to the tomb" with flowers, but also to shed a sweet fragrance around his daily walks and vocations. Then will not teachers do what they can to foster a flower-loving spirit? If they will, they will be amply compensated by their reflex influence in promoting a genial disposition in the hearts of the little ones under their charge. Whenever we see a happy boy or girl gaily tripping along the schocl-ward path, with a bunch of flowers, whether culled from the garden or road side, for the teacher's desk, we always feel that in the young heart |