and three pounds of lamp-black, mixed wth three gallons of alcohol. Lay the mixture evenly and smoothly on the surface to be covered. Note. The alcohol and the lampblack must be well mixed together, before they are mixed with the other ingredients. Another: To 100 lbs. of common mortar, add 25 lbs. of calcined plaster; to this add twelve papers, of the largest size, of lamp-black. This is to be put on as a skim coat, one-sixth of an inch thick on rough plastering, after it has been thoroughly raked and prepared. This should be covered with a coat of paint, made in the following manner : To one quart of spirits, add one gill of boiled oil; to this add one of the largest papers of lamp-black, after it has been thoroughly mixed with spirits. To this add one pound of the finest flour of emery. This paint may be also put on boards or canvas. This should be constantly stirred when used, to prevent the emery from settling. If too much oil, or if any varnish be used, the board will become more or less glazed, and unfit for use. Some prefer to have the board behind the teacher green or bronze, which is more grateful to the eye. This can be done by using chrome green instead of lampblack. None but the very finest flour of emery should be used. Some prefer pulverized pumice-stone to emery.

Groombridge's substitute for a black-board, which may be procured at the Educational Department, Toronto, of the following sizes and prices, is made of canvas, painted black, with wooden frames:-No. 1, Size 24 inches by 36 inches, $1 50c.; No. 2, 30 inches by 36 inches, $1 88c.; No. 3, 30 inches by 42 inches, $2 10c.

All stationary black-boards should have a neat frame or moulding at the top and each end, and a ledge or narrow trough at the bottom, to hold the chalk or crayons and the wipers, and to catch the dust from above. This should be so made as to prevent the crayons from rolling off and breaking on the floor.

MOVEABLE BLACK BOARDS.-These have the advantage of presenting both sides for use. One kind is set in a frame, and turns on pivots, as shown in the previous engraving. Another and a cheaper kind rests on a stand, something like a painter's easel. It is supported by pins, which can be raised or lowered at pleasure-both sides being also prepared for use.

CHALK AND CRAYONS.-Chalk is the substance most generally used for writing with on the black-board; but it is so often gritty and liable to scratch the board, that prepared crayons, when obtainable, are much better. The following recipe is said to produce excellent articles, at a small cost; and if one person were to make them for a whole district, the cost and the labor would both be further reduced. Crayons thus made will not cut or scratch the board, but they are easily broken, and require more care than chalk.

TO MAKE CRAYONS.-Take five pounds Paris White and one pound of Wheat flour, wet with water, knead it well, make it so stiff that it will not stick to the table, but not so stiff as to crumble and fall to pieces when it is rolled under the hand.

To roll out the Crayons to the proper size, two boards are needed, one to roll them on; the other to roll them with. The first should be a smooth pine board, three feet long and nine inches wide. The other also should be pine, a foot long and nine inches wide, having nailed on the under side, near each end, a slip of wood one-third of an inch thick, in order to raise it so much above the under board, as that the Crayon, when brought to its proper size, may lie between the boards without being flattened.

The mass is rolled into a ball, and slices are cut from one side of it about one-third of an inch thick; these slices are again cut into strips about four inches long, and one third of an inch wide, and rolled separately between these boards until smooth and round.

Near at hand should be another board, three feet long and four inches wide, across which each Crayon, as it is made, should be laid, so that the ends may project on each side; the Crayons should be laid in close contact and straight. When the board is

filled, the ends should be trimmed off, so as to make the Crayons as long as the width of the board. It is then laid in the sun, if in hot weather, or if in winter, near a stove or fire place where the Crayons may dry gradually, which will require twelve hours. When thoroughly dry they are fit for use. Crayons can also be procured at the Educational Depository, Toronto.

BLACK-BOARD BRUSH OR WIPER.-To save time and promote cleanliness, every pupil should, when at the board, be provided with a wiper, to clean the board and prevent as much as possible the dust from flying through the room. A common sized sheep's pelt would afford a sufficient number of the kind represented in the cut, for an ordinary school. The skin should be cut in pieces eight inches long and five wide, and be carefully tacked, woolly side out, on a block a little smaller in size. If the block is two or two and a half inches thick, it can be trimmed up so as to form a handle out of the same piece. These wipers will last a long time, and if properly made and used, will not cut or scratch the boards or wall.

BRUSH OR WIPER.

The Conical Brush or Wiper is a very superior article, and is sufficiently explained by the engraving. A wiper of some kind

should be provided, and its use insisted on in every school. The filthy practice of using the edge of the hand, or the cuff of

the coat for this purpose, should never be tolerated.

CONICAL BRUSH OR WIPER.

VI. ON SCHOOL APPARATUS, WITH DIRECTIONS FOR ITS SELECTION, USE, AND PRESERVATION.*

The utility and importance of the use of apparatus in the school-room, have not, until lately, been generally appreciated, as there are so many school sections in which nothing of the kind can be found.

It is now conceded by every one, that we can best understand those things which we can see and handle, as well as talk about. It is the habit of mankind to be better satisfied with a knowledge of those things the eye has witnessed, than with the knowledge of the same things of which they have only heard. "We have seen, and therefore we know," is the general sentiment. It is true that much of our knowledge of material things, of facts and of principles, is not the result of our own observation or experiment; much that we know is received and appropriated upon

the faith we have in others, in connection with our own knowledge of facts and

This chapter, with some modification, is taken from Mr. Gow's paper, published in the Pennsylvania School Architecture. Most of the articles mentioned may be obtained at the Educational Depository, Toronto. See descriptive catalogue sent to Trustees and Local Superintendents.

principles; but he is not well educated who relies "implicitly upon the statements of others, without some corroboration of his own judgment and experience. Scholars should think well and reason correctly-should form conclusions from established facts; and to do this, as much of their education as possible should be demonstrated or illustrated by practical appeals to their reason, through the media of the eye and the touch, as well as the sense of hearing.

Nor are the senses always able to convey the truth to the mind, although generally so reliable. We may deceive ourselves by relying too much on the appearances things may assume. Optical illusions or deceptions are not unfrequent, and hence the necessity of understanding things not only as they appear, but as they are.

The most enlightened and gifted teacher will frequently find that words are not sufficient to give a clear and distinct idea of subjects which are material and objects of sense. He must bring his subject, not abstractly, but really and practically, to the mind of the pupil, in order that it may be fully understood; and if he be not prepared to make his illustrations or experiments from the best sources and models, his ingenuity should be excited to present the best his means and opportunities will allow. The more that all the senses can be employed, the more information can be gained of

any subject. The wisest philosopher, endeavoring to explain the construction and operation of a steam engine, to one not well versed in mechanical science, would fail to convey any correct idea of the machine, unless assisted by diagrams, pictures, and models. Language alone would not be sufficient to present to the mind a clear conception of the complicated structure. Its various parts so nicely adjusted and well adapted to each other-its tremendous power and extreme velocity, could never be understood or appreciated unless it was thus seen and studied.

It is thus a question of great moment, how far material objects can be brought to assist in the improvement of the schools? Or, in other words, What tools can be put into the teacher's hands to enable him to do the most and best service, in the least time, and with the most economical expenditure of funds?

School apparatus may be enumerated under two classes. The first embraces those things which should be considered indispensable, and which no school should be without; the second contains such articles as may be considered exceedingly useful, though not absolutely essential, and also such as are most highly finished and expensive.

As the school law requires certain branches of science to be pursued in every section,

G

we would distinguish that apparatus as belonging to the first class, which is necessary to demonstrate, illustrate, or teach those branches, viz.: Geography, grammar, arithmetic, reading, writing, and spelling, and also to assist in the management of the school. The large majority of the schools would require a complete set of apparatus adapted to this end; and some might even go further, and secure some of the instruments enumerated in the second class.

Those embraced in the second class, would consist of such materiel as would be used in the teaching of any particular branch of science, other than those named in the school law, as natural philosophy, chemistry, physiology, &c.

In the first place, the first-class apparatus will be treated of, because much that it includes would be applicable to schools of the highest grade.

I. CLOCK-TIME-TABLE-BELL-REGISTER-THERMOMETER

THE CLOCK AND TIME TABLE.-The habit of correct observation cannot be cultivated in a better way than by a constant reference to time. In school this is particularly the case. Every day has its appointed duties, and every hour its special exercise. To secure punctuality, regularity, harmony, and good order, a clock, which may now be obtained for a small sum, should be placed in some conspicuous position in the schoolroom. A time-table or programme of the daily and hourly class duties should also be neatly written, or printed in large letters, and hung up in an accessible place.

"The bell strikes one. We take no note of time

But from its loss."

"Time is dealt out by particles;

To give it then a tongue is wise in man."

THE BELL.-A little hand-bell should accompany the clock, as a conservator of order, and will, if judiciously managed, save the teacher many an effort of the lungs. For opening the school, in changing classes, and at dismission, it is a sovereign remedy for noise and confusion. Sometimes a single clip of the clapper, accompanied by a glance of the teacher's eye, will speak a language "louder than words." For ordinary purposes, a simple twenty-five cent bell will be amply sufficient, and much preferable to the springbell, which is sometimes used.

THE SCHOOL REGISTER.-The school law requires a record of the attendance of the scholars, to be kept by the teacher, to be carefully preserved for future reference. To carry out the law, a register should be obtained by the Trustees, from the Local Superintendent, ruled according to the prescribed form. They should require it to be kept neatly and accurately, by the teacher, and presented regularly for inspection. A book of record of this kind, kept as contemplated, would exert a beneficial influence upon all connected with the school. To the trustees it would afford, at a glance, the comparative merits of one school with another, and of the present with the schools of the past. To the parent it would exhibit the attendance of the child, and its character. The pupil, knowing the permanence of the record, would strive to appear to the best advantage upon its pages. And lastly, the teacher could refer to it as one evidence of his neatness, regularity, and faithfulness.

THE THERMOMETER.-To ascertain the degree of temperature in the school-room (always a consideration of importance), there should be at least one thermometer. By means of the ventilators, the teacher may regulate the temperature, and prevent those extremes of heat and cold so injurious to health and prejudicial to comfort. The temperature should, if possible, range between sixty and seventy degrees. Good school thermometers, in boxwood cases, can be obtained at the Educational Depository, Toronto.

Thus far we have treated of those things which are important to preserve order, punctuality, and comfort. We will now refer to the apparatus necessary for teaching the required elementary branches.

II. SLATE TABLET AND OBJECT LESSONS-DRAWING,

BLACKBOARD, &c.

APPARATUS FOR THE LITTLE ONES.-It would be an easier task to select and use the apparatus of a college, than to make choice of those things suitable for the "little ones" of the school.

"The earth was made so various, that the mind

Of desultory man, studious of change

And pleased with novelty, might be indulged."

The school-house should also be "made so various." If children be well taught in school, efforts must be made to satisfy their desire after novelty and variety. They must be interested; and to interest them, they must have constant employment.*

THE SLATE.-Every child old enough to attend school should be furnished with a small, neat, well bound slate. All children love to draw figures and make marks with the chalk or pencil. If the propensity which affords them so much amusement, be properly directed, it will save them many a weary hour at school. If parents were confined six hours a day, with but little intermission, listening to their teacher of sacred things, in the church; or if the father were obliged to sit for several days constantly as a juror, -a slate and pencil, a picture, would afford great relief. Letters, words, and figures may be written, and pictures may be copied during the time which, without these amusements and employments, would be spent in idleness, restlessness, or mischief. Several kinds of slates are now in use. The lighter, stronger, and more beautiful the article, the more it will be prized and used. A very useful drawing slate, with pictures on the outside frame, may be obtained at the Educational Depository, Toronto.

TABLET LESSONS AND DRAWINGS.-To the great comfort of teachers and saving of primers, the pages of the first national reading-book in use has been printed in sheets, so as to be stretched on pasteboard. A class may recite from these with pleasure and profit. When not in use, the children may copy the words and letters on their slates. Cards, called “chalk drawings," to be used by children as copies at the black-board, are very useful and beautiful. They represent the object-a horse or a flower, as the case may be-on a black ground with white lines, so that they appear as if drawn with chalk on the black-board. The primary and secondary colors should be painted on cards, to teach children to distinguish colors, and to cultivate their taste for the beautiful.

BUILDING BLOCKS.-For the purpose of illustrating the principle of gravitation, about one hundred blocks, each one inch thick, one inch wide, and two inches long, should be provided. Many practical arithmetical difficulties might be explained by reference to a construction by the blocks; but the chief excellence of such a set would consist in the amusement and employment it would afford the "little ones." While the teacher was busy teaching a class, they would be no less busy in quietly building those little houses.

OBJECT LESSONS may be taught in two ways, viz., by pictures of animals, scenes and phenomena, &c., and by cabinet objects. Indeed to complete the list of those things deemed indispensable for the use of the teacher and the benefit of the "little ones," there should be provided a strong box, to contain a cabinet, or omnium gatherum,

The reader is referred to the suggestions on this subject contained in an article published in the Journal of Education for Upper Canada, July, 1857, page 107.