3. ARTICLES.

If 1 say, "Give me a book," you understand that any book will answer my purpose; but if I say, "Give me the book," you understand that I want some particular book. If I say, "Missouri is north of Arkansas," I mean States; bit if I say, "The Missouri is north of the Arkansas," I mean rivers. These little words, a and the, which often have so important an effect on the sense of noùns, are called articles. What, then, is an article ?

An article is a word placed before a noun, to show how the noun is applied.

Ex.-Man is made for society; but a man naturally prefers the man whose temper and inclinations best suit his own.

How many articles are there, and what are they?

Two: the, the definite article; and a or an, the indefinite article.

What does the definite article show?

The definite article shows that some particular object or group is meant.

Ex.-The horse, the horses, the stage, the Connecticut; the green meadows; the iron-bound bucket; the brave Pulaski.

What does the indefinite article show?

The indefinite article shows that no particular one of the kind is meant.

Ex.-A bird, a mouse, an apple, a cherry, a carriage; an idle boy.

How do a and an differ?

In application only; in meaning, they are the same.

Where is an used?

Before words beginning with a vowel sound.

Ex.-An article, an enemy, an inch, an urn, an hour, an honor.

Exercises.

The article, and why; whether definite or indefinite, and why; and to what it belongs

A

The roses in the garden. The rose is a beautiful flower. fish from the river. A daughter of a duke. The daughter of the A daughter of the duke. An eagle's nest.

duke.

Words Explained.—Article, joint; because, in the Greek language, from which the word is taken, it sometimes encloses a noun on each side, as two joints enclose a limb, or as that encloses man in the expression, "that MAN that I Saw." Understand, see with the mind. Definite, setting bounds to. Indefinite, not definite. Application, a putting to something else.

Where is a used !

Before words beginning with a consonant sound. Ex.—A banquet, a cucumber, a dunce, a fox, a horse, a jug, a king, a lion, a youth, a university, a eulogy; a one-horse carriage.

4. ADJECTIVES.

The nouns and pronouns, as you remember, denote objects. But our regard for objects depends not a little on their qualities and circumstances; and hence there is a large class of words to express these, for all the various purposes of life. The word apple, for instance, denotes something that may be red, large, ripe, mellow, juicy. And when I say, "that apple, this apple, every apple, four apples, the fourth apple," the slanting words show, without expressing quality, more precisely what I mean. These qualifying and designating-these descriptive and definitive words, which generally add an idea to that of the noun, are therefore called adjectives. What, then, is an adjective?

An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun.

Ex.-Green, good, lazy, tall, wise, religious. A bay horse; a sharp knife; a sharper knife; a bright day; golden clouds; a gold watch; Missouri apples; a rustling aspen; that sun-tipped elm; a boy nine years old, who is sick.

Adjectives may be divided into two classes; de scriptive and definitive. In stead of these words, qualifying and specifying may also be used.

What is a descriptive adjective?

A descriptive adjective describes or qualifies.

Ex.-A rapid river; the blue sky; a modest woman. She is beautiful, amiable, and intelligent. The rippling brook; waving woods; a broken pitcher, The last three adjectives, and others like them, are called participial adjectives.

Exercises.

Place the proper indefinite article before each of the following words or phrases :

Razor, house, knife, humming-bird, chicken, ounce, insult, unit, ox, ball, hundred, African; interesting story; humble cottage; useful instrument; honest man; honorable deed.

Words Explained.-Adjective, from the Latin ad, to, and jectus, thrown; thrown or joined to something else, adding an idea to. Quality, the nature of a thing for a long time. Condition, the nature of a thing for a short time. Circumstances, surroundings, what accompanies the main thing; thus, when an act is done, the time, place, manner, moans, etc., are its circumstances. Designating, pointing out. Descriptive, telling what something is. Defin'itive, showing which or how many. Limits, sets bounds to the meaning. Modifies, affects or varies the meaning. Principal, chief.

What is a definitive adjective?

A definitive adjective merely limits or modifies.

Ex-Four peaches; all peaches; some peaches; this peach.

Which are the principal definitive adjectives?

All, any, both, certain, each, every, either, else, few, many, many a, much, neither, no, one, other, own, same, some, such, that, this, very, what, which, and yon or yonder.

Also, one, two, three, etc.; first, second, third, etc.

Nearly all the adjectives of the first class are usually called pronominal adjectives, some of them being occasionally used as pronouns; and those of the second class are called numeral adjectives. Since we may refer to objects definitely, indefinitely, or distributively, the pronominal adjectives are accordingly, some of them, definite or demonstrative, as this, that, yonder; some, indefinite, as any, some, other; and some, distributive, as each, every, either, neither, many a. And since we may either count or number, some of the numeral adjectives are called cardinal, as one, two, three; and the others, ordinal, as first, second, third.

Either and neither properly relate to one of two; any, any one, or none, should be applied to more. This refers to the nearer of two; that, to the more distant.

Since the same quality may exist in different objects, and in the same degree or in different degrees,--as, "red cheeks, red roses, red hair, redder cheeks, the reddest roses,"―adjectives have what grammarians call the degrees of comparison. What, then, is meant, in grammar, by comparison?

Comparison, in grammar, denotes the forms in which adjectives and adverbs are expressed, to show the quality and its degrees.

There are three degrees of comparison; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.

Exercises.

The adjective, and why; whether descriptive or definitive, and why; and to what it belongs:

The blue sky. The sky is blue. An aspiring man. A modest and beautiful woman, with eyes bright, blue, and affectionate. The night grew darker and darker. That field has been in cultivation four years. The first car is not full, having but one man in it. The landscape was fresh with dew and bright with morning light. The rosy-fingered Morn. The star-powdered galaxy. The apples

Words Explained.—Pronom'inal, resembling a pronoun. Distributively, taken one by one. Demon'strative, pointing out exactly what is meant. Numeral, expressing number. Cardinal, chief, the most important or common. Ordinal, expressing order. Degree, a step or grade.

How does the positive degree describe an object?

The positive degree ascribes to an object the quality simply, or an equal degree of it.

Ex.-High, rocky, polite, black, prudent; as white as snow.

How does the comparative degree describe an object?

The comparative degree ascribes to an object the quality in a higher or a lower degree.

Ex.-Higher, rockier, politer, better, more prudent, less prudent.

How does the superlative degree describe an object?

The superlative degree ascribes to an object the quality in the highest or the lowest degree.

Ex.-Highest, rockiest, politest, best, most prudent, least prudent.

How are adjectives of one syllable compared, to express increase of the quality? By adding er or est to the word in the positive degree.

Ex-Pos. great, comp. greater, superl. greatest; wise, wiser, wisest. See p. 153. What adjectives of two syllables are compared by annexing er and est ?

Adjectives of two syllables ending in y or le, or accented on the second syllable.

Ex-Pos. lovely, comp. lovelier, superl. loveliest; able, abler, ablest; serene, serener, serenest.

How do we compare other adjectives of two syllables, all adjectives of more syllables, and sometimes adjectives of any length?

Other adjectives of two syllables, all adjectives of more syllables, and sometimes adjectives of one syllable, are compared by placing more and most before the positive.

Ex.-Pos. beautiful, comp. more beautiful, superl most beautiful; active, more active, most active; unlucky, more unlucky, most unlucky. The more nice and elegant parts.-Johnson. By far the most rich and copious.-Pope.

A foot more light, a step more true,

Ne'er from the heath-flower dashed the dew.-Scott.

Exercises.

boiled soft.

Now fairer blooms the drooping rosc.

swung loose at the sport of the wind. broad, deep, clear, swift, and winding river.

His hammock He is asleep.

This is a

Words Explained.-Positive, laid down, certain, referring to nothing else. Comparative, reckoned by comparison. Superlative, from the Latin super, over, beyond, and latus, carried; beyond all others. Irregular, not according to rule, differing from most of its kind. Propriety, good sense as to fitness.

Some words are expressed in the superlative degree, by annexing most to them; as, Inmost, innermost, utmost (outmost), uppermost, nethermost.

A high degree of the quality, without implying direct comparison, is expressed by very, exceedingly, a most, etc.; as, Very respectful, exceedingly polite, a most ridiculous affair.

Some adjectives are not compared according to the foregoing rules, and are therefore said to be irregular. The following is a list:—

FOLL

Positive.
Good,

Superl.

better, best.

Bad, ill, or evil, worse,

Much or many, more,

Little, Fore,

less,

most.
least.

former,

foremost, or Late,
first.

(Forth further,
Near,

nearer,

farthest.
furthest.

nearest, or next.

later, latter, latest, or last. Old, older, elder, oldest, or eidest.

Elder and eldest are applied to persons only; older and oldest, to persons or things. Later and latest refer to time; latter and last, generally to order in place. How are adjectives compared when we wish to express decrease of the quality?

By less and least.

Ex-Wise, less wise, least wise; arrogant, less arrogant, least arrogant.

A little of the quality may be expressed by annexing ish to the positive, or by placing before it, rather, somewhat, etc.; as, Black, blackish; salt, saltish; disagreeable, somewhat disagreeable; young, rather young.

Can all adjectives be compared ?

Some can not be compared with propricty.

Ex.-Eternal, straight, equal, perpendicular, two-edged, speechless, four.

Exercises.

Compare, of the following adjectives, those which can be compared :—

Wise, studious, near, good, evil, melodious, high, tuneful, saucy, eloquent, expressive, lovely, nimble, late, many, much, few, little, old, glowing, accomplished, expert, half-finished, full, counterfeit, graceful, meagre, worthless, bottomless, fundamental, ornamental, vernal, green, sluggish, sunburnt, free, first.

Mention and spell the three degrees of comparison :—

Strong, weak, light, gay, rough, nice, coarse, fierce, white, ripe, thin, slim, dim, fit, hot, fat, glad, big, droll, dry, sprightly, manly, gentle, feeble, noble, idle, discreet, remote, sublime, profound.

Compare by using LESS and LEAST:

Broad, convenient, confident, oily, troublesome, thick, joyful, sorrowful, exorbitant, exact, indulgent, handsome.

Join suitable adjectives to each of the following nouns :

Moon, field, fountain, trees, garden, horse, willow, man, woman, pen, ink, day, wood, boys, thoughts, feelings, actions, conduct.