to recognise their existence, and, simultane- That the attempt would be opposed was ously with this refusal to treat, came notice certain-not only from the distinct assurof the President's intention to throw sup-ance of the Southern leaders, but from the plies into Fort Sumter; if necessary, by fact that the 'Star of the West' had already force. Private information assured the been fired into when engaged in a similar Southern authorities that the supplies thus service. Yet not only was the fleet inadethreatened included, not provisions only, but quate in itself and altogether unsupported; men, and prompt measures were taken to it did not even attempt to take part in the frustrate the design. To the summons to affray that was raging under its very guns, surrender, Major Anderson returned a cour- but saw the flag hauled down, after a bomteous but decided refusal. Still the Confed- bardment of several hours, without an effort erate General was anxious, if possible, to to avert the catastrophe. It is difficult to avoid the effusion of blood. The provisions believe that an expedition so conducted was in the fort were known to be almost ex- really undertaken in good faith. The scheme hausted, and an extension of the time for was, indeed, equally bold and unscrupulous. evacuation until they should be actually Involving, as it did, the very probable despent, was offered on condition that the struction of Major Anderson's little force, it guns of the fort should not be opened upon evinced at the very outset that recklessness the State troops, unless in answer to a pre- of human life for which the War Party of vious fire from them. To his acceptance of the North has been throughout distinguishthese conditions Major Anderson added a ed. But it was successful. Sumter fell, proviso extending his power of opening fire and its fall effectually awaked the North to the commission by the State troops of from her torpor. 'any hostile act against this fort or the flag of [his] Government.' But the war vessels of the United States were already in sight, and the stipulation was in fact a nullification of the whole proposal. General Beauregard's answer was brief, and in an hour the world had seldom seen, the President's from its despatch the Confederate batteries opened upon the fort.

Yet, even now, the North seems to have had no glimpse of the real nature of the contest. At the commencement of a war the duration of which is still uncertain, and which was soon to absorb such armies as

call was for 75,000 men for a service of three months. The immediate reply to this call was the secession of Virginia, and eight of the largest and most powerful States were now arrayed in open hostility to the Union.

Up to this moment it does not appear as though either party had realised to itself the approach of war. On each the error told with proportionate effect. The South ern anticipation of a peaceful issue preventBut the Northern error did not alone coned indeed any general measure of prepara- sist in an under-estimate of the occasion. tion, but the warlike spirit of the people Reckless of the lessons of history, the leadwas easily roused. At the actual centres ers hastened to repeat on a larger scale and of interest around the various disputed with more disastrous results the fatal misforts, works were thrown up, and the State take of the Allies in the earlier campaigns militias called out and partially trained. of the French Revolutionary War. From In the districts less immediately affected, the first the Northern strategy consisted of the general excitement yet gave additional a series of combined attacks by armies impulse to the innate military propensity. moving in converging lines, until at length The Volunteer organisation received a fresh it culminated in the celebrated 'anaconda' impetus. The North remained inert. So scheme. A marvellous piece of boastful great was the general indifference, that the folly. Not only along the whole Northern final catastrophe of Mr. Lincoln's appa- frontier of the seceding States, but down rently vacillating policy with respect to Fort Sumter is now openly attributed to a deliberate design of arousing the spirit of the Northern States by the sacrifice of its garrison and the humiliation of its flag.

There is, indeed, strong evidence in favour of such an assumption. General Scott had given a decided opinion as to the futility of any attempt to relieve the forts in the face of opposition, unless backed at once by a numerous fleet and a powerful land army. This opinion was held by almost every military man of any weight at the North.

the vast Atlantic seaboard, in the far-off wilds of Texas, and northward again along the whole course of the mighty Mississippi, the improvised fleets and armies of the North were to encircle a frontier that can be estimated only in thousands of miles, and crush out the heart of the rebellion by one contraction of its coils. A levy en masse of her whole population, well armed, well trained, well provided, and well led, would have been inadequate to the task.

It is impossible to exaggerate the influ ence of this fatal blunder. It at once

aggravated every defect of the Federal | the grand object of an attack the result of armies, and enhanced every advantage of which must in effect decide one main polititheir foes. The North was weak in gen- cal issue of the war. Space forbids us to erals; the division of forces demanded for attempt any detailed account of operations each separate corps a skilful head. The that, commencing on a line of some 500 men were untrained, and their movements miles in extent, ultimately enveloped the slow and uncertain, while all depended on whole frontier of the Southern States. Passpunctuality and despatch. They were fight- ing by, therefore, the numberless skirmishes ing on soil whose every inhabitant was a and actions of minor importance, we must foe, and where each word of information confine ourselves to tracing the main outwas given only to mislead; each separate lines of the campaign. line of march was just so much added to In the invasion of Virginia the great anadangers such as these. Difficulties of com- conda scheme received its first development. missariat, of transport, and of communica. On the 21st June Major-General M'Clellan tion-all were multiplied by subdivision assumed command of the Army of Western of the forces to be supplied. And greatest Virginia. Starting from his head-quarters of all, perhaps, in its influence upon the at Grafton, he pushed on by Clarksburg and general character of the war was the effect Beverly in the direction of Richmond, driv of this encircling attack upon the invaded ing before him General Garnett, who, with territory itself. The common jealousy of about 7000 men, was finally defeated at the individual rights by which the several States battle of Rich Mountain, Colonel Pegram were linked together was a bond that had with nearly 1000 men being cut off and in it as much of danger as of union until compelled to surrender. M'Clellan's adcemented by a common danger and a com- vance was followed by that of Patterson. mon hate. The contingents of the distant The head-quarters of this General were at States of the Gulf to a war on Virginian Hagerstown, in Maryland, where he had soil would have been, at the best, but con- collected an army of about 20,000 men. tingents only not the whole desperate Passing by Harper's Ferry, the arsenal of strength of self-defence. By one system which had been destroyed and abandoned only could that strength be developed, but by the Federal troops, he also pushed on under that system its development was cer- towards Richmond, General A. S. Johntain. The anaconda must needs startle, if stone with about half his force retreating it could not destroy; failing to crush, its before him to Winchester. There the latpressure could not but consolidate. South ter came to a stand behind the entrenchCarolina was warm in the cause; if the ments already thrown up with a view to Federal troops could not capture Charleston, such a movement. Meanwhile M'Dowell they could at least ensure that her zeal was at Washington with the main Federal should not too quickly cool. Louisiana was army of about 50,000 men. According to less enthusiastic, but she sprang beneath the the plan of General Scott, this force was to spur struck rowel-deep at New Orleans. co-operate with M'Clellan and Patterson, The Border States were neutral or divided; already advancing, as we have seen, towards a little fighting was wondrously effective in Richmond, upon converging lines. nursing the latent fire to a glow. From now appeared the inherent weakness of this Virginia to Texas, from Florida to the far system of strategy, more especially under North-West, no single State but has felt the such circumstances as those of the present prick of the Northern bayonet, and learned struggle. The impatient democracy of the from it, at least, that for her, too, no less North, urged on by an ignorant and intemthan for her sister-States, the struggle is one perate press, grew clamorous for immediate of life or death. results. General Scott, himself a SouthThe first campaign was brief and restrict- erner, and already claimed as an adherent ed. The great Border State of Kentucky by the seceding States, was especially obhad as yet managed to preserve intact the noxious to attack on the ground of lukeneutrality proclaimed at the commencement warmness in the Union cause. Forced on of the contest, and fully one-third of the dis- by popular clamour, before the necessary puted frontier was thus rendered unavail- preparations were complete, he was comable for hostile operations. Already, how-pelled to risk all in a premature advance. ever, Virginia and Missouri presented each The result was, the disaster of Bull Run. a separate phase of the coming struggle. On the 17th July, General Mi Dowell In the latter was initiated that desultory commenced operations by the occupation Border-warfare that in Kentucky, Arkansas, of Fairfax Courthouse. Close in his front and Tennessee still rages with varying and lay General Beauregard, with about 17,000 indecisive fortune. Kentucky had become men. As M'Dowell advanced, the little

army of the Confederates retired slowly | On the contrary, it is beyond question that upon their previously-selected position on many of them heartily disapproved the enthe southern bank of Bull Run, a small terprise in which they were engaged. Sumstream taking its rise in the mountain of moned ostensibly for defence of the capital, that name, and running in a westerly direc- and stimulated by the disgrace that at Sumtion to the Potomac river, near Occoquan. ter had befallen their flag, the Democrats, About three miles in the rear of this stream whose political sympathies were all on the is the Manassas Junction Station, where the Southern side, had yet come cheerfully formain line from Alexandria to Gordonsville ward to resist invasion. But they were not and Richmond is joined by the branch from prepared to assume the aggressive against Winchester and Harper's Ferry. The two men who were fighting for the very princiConfederate armies were thus one at each ples that they themselves had most at heart. end of a short railroad line. And now the The ardour of thousands was checked by the immense superiority of Southern over feeling that they had been cheated into so Northern tactics became strikingly_mani- distasteful a course. The deliberate march

posed his force consented to prolong their service for the required ten days. Thus threatened with wholesale desertion, and further disheartened by rumours that exaggerated General Johnstone's little force to upwards of 40,000 men, General Patterson abandoned the attack, and by a flank march to Charlestown endeavoured to make the best of his position by at once covering the approach to Washington, and securing his own line of retreat.

The joint forces of M'Clellan, Patter-ing-off of two Pennsylvania regiments during son, and M'Dowell outnumbered their op- the actual battle of Bull Run must be mainly ponents by nearly three to one. Both attributed to this cause; and it doubtless armies were hastily raised, and but partially aided largely in promoting disaffection disciplined; but every advantage of arms among Patterson's troops. But whatever and equipment was on the side of the the cause, the result was decided. Four North. With them, too, was all the excite- regiments only out of the nineteen that comment of the advance, whilst their enemy was fighting under the disadvantage of a retreat, so especially depressing to young troops; but every advantage was neutralised by superior skill. The retiring troops had reached the positions marked out for them from the first; and now the retreat ceased, and they turned to bay. M'Clellan was away beyond the main range of the Alleghany Mountains, and altogether out of the game. The issue lay with M'Dowell and Patterson, and each was now face to face with his foe. But the retreat, too, had been on converging lines; and while the Northern Generals were still separated by some sixty miles of hostile country, the Southern forces stood, as it were, back to back, their strength fully doubled by the facility of mutual support.

Nor was this the only weak point of the Federal system. To the fatal error of division of force was added a yet more fatal defect in the constitution of the force itself. The three months for which levies had been raised had been exhausted in preparation before a movement could be made. On the very eve of a first decisive engagement, General Patterson found himself on the point of being abandoned by his troops. Their time of service had expired. It was in vain that he implored them to remain in the ranks but for ten days more, until success could be ensured. They complained of hardships, such as an improvised commissariat must always entail-of bad provisions, ragged clothing, bare feet, and short allowance. The first excitement had died away; the contest involved for them no such personal interest as carried the Southern troops through such far severer trials.

Patterson's withdrawal left his opponent free to hurry to the support of Beauregard. For some days the latter, pressed with his little army of 17,000 men by M'Dowell's overwhelming force, had been urgently importuning the President to order Johnstone to his aid. Hurrying to Manassas with about 8000 men, the latter, with the generosity of which the Confederate service offers so many examples, and which affords a striking contrast to the petty jealousies of Northern commanders, at once placed himself under the orders of his junior officer, and lent his utmost efforts to carry out his plans. With the further small addition of force brought up from Fredericksburg by General Holmes, Beauregard's army now numbered about 27,000 men. Before either of these reinforcements had arrived, however, the contest had already commenced with a sharp engagement on the 18th at Blackburn's Ford, near the centre of the position behind Bull Run. This preliminary action seems to have satisfied the Federalists of the impossibility of forcing the position, and M'Dowell's attention was now therefore directed to the endeavour to turn it.

The right of the Southern army was protected by rough and broken country, tra

versed only by narrow and difficult roads. | country, would be to arouse against themM'Dowell therefore determined to attack selves that very feeling of personal interest on the left, and a flank movement was exe- and enthusiasm that was now their best ally. cuted with that object. On the morning of The mere rumour of such a design had sufthe 21st July the fight began. The rein- ficed to call forth a formidable army. Its forcements from Winchester were now fast execution would at that period have armed arriving, and, confident of the issue, Beau- the entire people in all the energy of selfregard had conceived a plan by which to eut defence. Moreover the nature of the Conoff the Federal retreat. Anticipating the federate forces peremptoly forbade the direction of M'Dowell's attack, and strength- needless expenditure of a single life. They ening his own left wing to meet it, he sent were of far too costly material to be unneorders to General Early, on his extreme cessarily exposed. right, to push forward past the left flank of the enemy to Centreville, on the Washington road. What might have been the result of so bold a stroke it is impossible now to estimate. The order miscarried; and when the mistake was discovered, the attack on the left wing had become too heavy to risk the long delay before the diversion at Centreville could be made. Changing his plan, therefore, he committed to General Johnstone the task of hurrying up the right wing to the support of his overmatched left; and by their aid the fortune of the day, which had hitherto inclined to the Federal side, was turned. The rest was almost matter of course. It was not without good reason that Beauregard had claimed such high credit for his troops for their retrograde movement of the 17th. Retreat in presence of an enemy is the supreme trial of even veteran troops. The soldier knows that something more than mere courage is required for prompt rally from defeat. Individually the Northern troops were doubtless as courageous as their opponents; but they were not, like them, of the stuff of which soldiers were made. Defeat was fatal. The check became a retreat; the retreat a rout; the rout a panic-stricken sauve qui peut.

In the first depression of so terrible a disaster the fall of the capital itself was momentarily expected. An attack upon it had already, as we have said, been advocated by some of the more ardent spirits of the South. In the first excitement of the news from Sumter, the then Confederate Minister of War, Mr. Walker, had spoken openly of it to the populace of the Southern capital. It seemed almost impossible that the Confederate General, flushed with victory, within a day's march, and with the road open before him, should let slip so tempting a chance. Had the attempt been made, it is by no means improbable that Washington would have fallen; but wiser counsels prevailed. The Southern policy was one not of aggression, but of defence. In that policy lay their strength. To attack the capital, the central point of interest of the whole

With the battle of Bull Run then ended for a time all important operations on either side. Each now set to work to organise fresh troops and prepare for a struggle on a far larger scale. As might be expected, the first step of the infuriated North was the disgrace of her unsuccessful Generals. Patterson was promptly, but honourably, dismissed the service; and M'Dowell superseded by M'Clellan, whose success at Rich Mountain was the one bright spot in the campaign. Abandoning all idea of an immediate advance, the new commander commenced, with that slowness and steadiness that seems to characterise all his actions, to re-form the shattered Army of the Potomac, and organise the new levies now beginning to pour in. The Confederates on their part were not idle. From the first they had avoided one great error of the North, and had enlisted almost invariably for five years, or for the war. It is probable that as yet this rule had somewhat checked the influx of recruits, but its wisdom was now apparent. The real magnitude of the occasion was at length forced upon the public mind, and the long period of service, now become an obvious necessity, no longer damped the general eagerness to join the ranks. Nor was the wisdom of the Executive less clearly shown in the organisation of their army. Instead of retaining intact the regiments already in the field, and supplementing them with fresh levies, they now offered every inducement to the higher class of volunteers to take their discharge, and re-enter the service as commissioned officers. A double object was thus gained. The élite of the Southern youth were no longer subjected to an exposure that was altogether without equivalent in the service performed; the new levies were provided with officers thoroughly fitted for command, not only by social position, but by actual experience in the field.

Nor was the efficiency of the Confederate system more remarkable than its economy. In nothing have the warring sections been more strongly contrasted than in their respective expenditure. It was not alone that

She was

the universal enthusiasm enabled the South | dations on Northern commerce. to dispense almost entirely with those boun- now followed by the 'Nashville,' a someties that soon became so heavy a drain on what larger paddle-steamer; and their exthe exchequers of the North. Every item of ploits, with those of several smaller conexpenditure felt its influence. Commissariat sorts, soon began to exercise a palpable inexpenses were minimized by subscriptions fluence on Northern rates of assurance. On of money, of cotton, of stores of every kind. the part of the Federal Government every Food and forage were poured out in profu- exertion was made to push forward the fleet sion for the use of patriot troops. Fine of iron-clad gunboats and floating batteries ladies made and mended the soldiers' clothes. now in course of construction, and to increase Merchants ran costly cargoes through the the efficiency of the blockade. In its eager blockade, and sent their invoices for Gene- pursuit, indeed, of the latter object it somerals to select at their own price whatever what overstepped the legitimate bounds of they might need. Men and officers by thou- civilized warfare. Of all the 'Rebel' strongsands refused to touch their hard-earned pay. holds none was so utterly obnoxious to the The very money-market shared in the gene- Northern mind as Charleston, in South Caroral enthusiasm; and while gold disappeared lina. Not only was it one of the most comaltogether from circulation, the Confederate mercially valuable of the Southern ports, paper long maintained a factitious value that but it was the first in which the standard of was also undoubtedly much assisted by the Secession had been raised, and its name was seclusion from foreign intercourse. The inseparably connected with the fall of Sumdearly purchased levies of the North must ter and the humiliation of the Federal flag. be carefully kept and fed from the first The steps taken to enforce the blockade at moment they were raised; and in this this point became thus marked with a savnecessity originated much of that gigantic age vindictiveness that drew down universal system of fraud the exposure of which has reprehension. A fleet of old whale-ships so lately aroused the general indignation. The services of Southern regiments were not accepted until their numbers were complete, and till then the burden of their maintenance was left on private hands.

and other worn-out vessels was purchased in various New England ports, and heavily laden with stone, with the avowed purpose of being sunk in the entrance of the port of Charleston, and destroying it as a harbour for ever. Happily for humanity, this barbarous scheme failed of its intended effect; indeed, it is said (we know not how truly) to have improved the harbour; but the design went far to fix upon its authors a stigma, since rendered ineffaceable by its wicked attempt to excite a servile insurrection.

Nearly six months now passed in preparation, but they were by no means devoid of interest to the looker-on. Westward the war, which was now gradually extending its area over Kentucky and Tennessee, raged with varying success. Its general results, however, were unfavourable to the Confed erates, who were finally pushed back into But the event which during this period Arkansas. In this quarter the year closed excited the greatest interest was the forcible gloomily for the Southern cause, and the seizure of the Southern Commissioners on Federal advance paved the way for still board the British mail-steamer Trent.' more important successes in the ensuing Whether this was really the irresponsible spring. Along the Virginian frontier nu- act of an unscrupulous officer in search of merous unimportant skirmishes took place, a little cheap distinction, or whether it was but the position of the hostile forces remain- deliberately planned in order that a war with ed substantially the same. On the Atlan- the Old Country' might reunite North and tic coast also various gunboat engagements preluded the grand attack now in active preparation, but also without material result. Meanwhile the most active measures were taken to meet the threatened descent. For tifications were thrown up and manned, and preparations everywhere made for destroying the cotton and laying waste the country in the event of any disaster.

South against the common enemy, cannot now be determined. The sudden cooling of the war-fever, on the arrival of the message of the English Government, and the universal acquiescence in Mr. Seward's prompt, though not very graceful, submission to Earl Russell's demands, is by no means the least striking incident of a history that has been beyond any other prolific in surprises. At sea, too, neither side was idle. At With the commencement of the New the very commencement of the war the lit-Year the Anaconda' began to stir. The tle 'Sumter,' a small merchant-steamer of first movement was made in the West, about 400 tons, hastily fitted as an impromp- where Fort Henry in Tennessee was attacktu man-of-war, had run the blockade at New ed by General Grant on the 6th February, Orleans, and was committing terrible depre- with a strong force of gunboats under Com