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appointments, however, apparently affected the political character of the Ministry, although they may be said to have further enhanced its somewhat pronounced bureaucratic quality, a circumstance which did not altogether find favour with the Conservative party.

The relations between Sweden and Norway were of a more amicable nature than had for years been the case, and do not call for any special comment as far as Sweden is concerned.

IX. NORWAY.

For Norway the year 1901 was one of comparative quiet. At times there were rumours of more or less sharp political differences, but, on the whole, the year afforded evidence of considerable subsidence in the excited party feelings of previous years. The Radical majority found that, in spite of their unassailable political security, it was a difficult task for them to carry into effect some of the important reforms which figured most conspicuously in their electioneering programme. The Steen Government found it beyond their power to solve or even attempt a satisfactory solution of the vexed question of the cessation of the joint diplomatic and consular representation of Norway and Sweden. The severance of the two sister countries. in this matter was not yet brought about, long and loudly as the Radicals had cried for it, and the prospects of its speedy consummation were by no means encouraging to those who desired it. It was, therefore, not unnatural that a certain amount of dissatisfaction sprang up within the Left party with the Premier, and more than once rumours of his impending resignation were current. But still M. Steen remained, at the end of the year, at the head of the Government, and with him were still some of his staunch friends, such men as MM. Blehr, Löoland and Qvvam.

The Government experienced some difficulty in making both ends meet. Their expenditure had been heavy on railways and in various other departments, and also they had taken in hand important extensions and reforms of the defensive services. Times have not been good in Norway, and although a large new loan was resorted to the taxes have of necessity been increased. The Conservatives have for several years been somewhat severe in their criticisms of the financial policy of the Steen Government, and it would appear that there are some grounds for this.

The Storthing, which resumed its labours after the Christmas recess, had a great many measures under its consideration, both Government and private bills; but although the session proved an exceedingly long one, lasting until June 3, the work done was not excessive, a number of measures being allowed to stand over till the next session. The predominating sentiment was distinctly Radical, and the Extreme Left wing had the

upper hand, thanks more especially to some of the new and younger Members. This was illustrated more through the tendency of the legislative work than by marked political utterances, which have not been much in vogue. As examples of the manner in which the Radicals thought fit to override opinions opposed to, but, probably, much sounder than, their own, may be mentioned their treatment of the defensive measures, and, still more, the pressing forward of the Extension of Municipal Suffrage Bill. The latter was introduced by ten Members, with M. Castberg as spokesman, and had for its object the introduction of universal municipal suffrage for all men. Its opponents considered that the bringing forward of this measure was all the more ill-judged and inopportune, seeing that various municipal reforms were under consideration; the Left party had not pledged themselves in this direction, and no doubt many of the older Members had their misgivings; but when the Government saw that in spite of this the bill had plenty of support from the extreme wing they deemed it advisable to accept it. In order to somewhat counteract the influence of this change a bill providing for qualified female suffrage was introduced and carried by a majority comprising most of the Conservatives and some of the Left. The voting took place in the Odelsthing on May 10, the universal municipal suffrage for men being passed by 48 votes against 36, and the bill giving the municipal franchise to women who pay taxes on an annual income of not less than 300 kr. in the country and 400 kr. in the towns, or who have joint estate with husbands similarly taxed, by 68 votes against 17.

The new defensive measures caused a considerable amount of excitement even before their introduction, and in the earlier part of April there were even rumours of a Ministerial crisis. The King was understood to be against the matter being rushed, as M. Stang, the new and energetic War Minister, and eventually the rest of the Government and their followers, desired. The Conservatives were not exactly against the measure, but they asked for a proper investigation. In the matter of defensive measures, both military and naval, the situation has been strangely reversed, compared with what was the case only a few years previously, a change mostly caused by the agitated feeling against Sweden, which the Radicals for years have done their best to arouse throughout the nation. The defensive scheme in question comprised frontier fortifications on the eastern line of access, and the King's objection, as privately expressed, was mainly that the measure had not been laid before the military authorities in the regular manner. The bill was ultimately passed on the last day of the session, in accordance with the demands of the Government and the committee, comprising a vote for the Glommen line and a smaller naval grant. It was opposed by a minority on account of not having been sufficiently sifted, but it was carried by 69 votes against 37, figures which

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were reversed in negativing a proposal to let the matter stand over for the present.

The two measures already referred to were by far the most important disposed of during the long session. Of other bills passed may be mentioned the Ship Registration Act, dealing with a subject which had been under consideration for a long time. An act was also passed introducing supervision, when deemed expedient, of foreigners; but otherwise the legislative result was of no great importance. Several measures, which are of more significance, were allowed to stand over in various stages of progress. The Government seems to have in recent years adopted the practice of often introducing late in the session bills which are beforehand certain of not being carried through their final stages, it no longer being necessary to reintroduce such measures in the following session. A constitutional proposal was carried giving women the right to become Government officials, thus determining a question which had been in a considerable amount of doubt, inasmuch as women had for several years been entitled to pass the examinations necessary for such Government appointments. Proposals, in the constitutional sphere, relating to the King's right of dissolution and to a limitation of fees for the Members of the Storthing were negatived, the Radical majority being against them.

In the course of September Dr. Sigurd Ibsen, a kind of Government expert in consular and diplomatic matters, was commissioned to frame a new proposal for the reorganisation of the consular system, the three heads being organisation of a purely Norwegian consular service, new regulations for the consuls, and a consular budget. In the course of October M. Lagerheim, the Foreign Minister, proposed to M. Blehr, Norwegian Minister, the appointment of a "Union Committee," consisting of two gentlemen possessed of special knowledge in such matters from each country to consider the possible severance of the consular representation of the two countries. During the preliminary negotiations there was some dissension as to the scope of the reference to the proposed committee, Norway preferring an entirely separate consular department, whereas Sweden was in favour of separate consulates under one joint head. At the close of the year there was, however, every prospect of a committee soon being appointed.

When the Storthing met in the autumn the financial position attracted a considerable amount of attention. In many quarters expression was given to grave apprehensions, and greater economy and more foresight were strongly recommended. The report of the Budget Committee was ready by October 22, and this report is in Norway both a comprehensive and an exhaustive work, intended to supply much of what may transpire on the first reading of the Ways and Means Bill in other Legislatures. The committee pointed out "the urgent necessity" of introducing as much economy as was compatible

with the interests of the country, "which had not yet overstrained its financial capacity, but which was running the risk of doing so if public expenditure, without the support of improving times, went on increasing at the same rate as had been the case during the last ten to fifteen years." The aggregate national expenditure, the committee pointed out, had been about doubled during the last fifteen years, and although the national credit had been unaffected by the many national loans of the last few years, that fact was due to their having been applied to "material development," while the ordinary expenditure had, on the whole, been covered by the ordinary revenue. The State had expended an aggregate of 130,000,000 kr. on railways, of which the direct annual revenue amounted to only 1,500,000 kr., whilst the interest on the capital amounted to more than 5,000,000 kr. It was therefore desirable that the revenue of the railways should increase. The financial result of the Kongsberg Silver Works (State property) was not satisfactory, and the expenditure of the Legislature was steadily increasing.

The financial discussion commenced in the Storthing on October 28, and a number of Members spoke at great length. Professor Hagerup, in the course of a very able and comprehensive speech, took a somewhat gloomy view of the future, and thought the Government would in all probability have to introduce increased taxation beyond that included in the Budget now under consideration.

A new State loan of 35,000,000 kr. was ultimately proposed and accepted by the Storthing on December 17, the interest not to exceed 3 per cent., to be repaid within sixty years. The Opposition proposed to limit the loan to 30,000,000 kr., but the committee's proposal was carried against thirty-five votes.

Towards the end of the year a change took place in the Ministry, M. Sparre being made Admiral-in-Chief, and M. Gunnar Knudsen being appointed, in succession to him, Minister, or member of the Norwegian Council of State, domiciled in Stockholm.

The municipal election in Christiania attracted much attention, more especially on account of its being the first time the new suffrage regulations came into operation. In spite of the extended suffrage the result was a victory for the Conservatives, who polled a total of 15,017 votes, giving them 47 seats on the Municipal Board against 43 in the previous Town Council. The Left polled 5,150 votes (16 seats), the Socialists 4,485 (14) seats), the Teetotallers 930 (3 seats), the Democrats 874 (2 seats), and the non-political list was supported by 700 votes (2 seats).

CHAPTER V.

I. ASIA (SOUTHERN).

PERSIA.

By the Russo-Persian Treaty Russia obtained the right to establish branches of the Russian Imperial Bank in Persia, and one was opened at Resht with considerable ceremony in November last.

The existence of a widespread revolutionary movement was reported earlier in the year, owing to the Government having entered into loan negotiations with Russia, and it was said that the Grand Vizier had incurred great unpopularity for selling his country, and that a minor state of siege had been proclaimed in Teheran. This was officially denied by the Persian Legation in London. On the other hand, Persia raised the duty on Russian imports to 5 per cent., and has imposed a similar duty on exports to that country.

A Convention was signed between the Persian and British Governments for the construction of a three-wire telegraph line from Kashan to British Baluchistan via Yezd, Kirman and Bampur.

The most important events of 1901 in South-Western Asia have been those connected with Koweit in the Persian Gulf. Early in the year hostilities broke out between Mabarik, Sheikh of Koweit, and Bin Rashid, who called himself King of Arabia. At the outset Mabarik, whose troops were the better armed, inflicted a severe defeat upon Bin Rashid, conquered his kingdom of Nejd, and deposed him. But in a subsequent engagement Mabarik was defeated in a battle or rather an ambuscade, in which 5,000 men were said to have fallen, and retired in disorder to his own territory. He was then threatened with invasion by Bin Rashid, and a considerable Turkish force was collected not far from his borders. He appealed for protection to the Indian Government and a British warship prevented the landing of another body of Turkish troops.

Diplomatic explanations followed, and it was said that the Turkish troops were intended for the protection of Mabarik and to act against Bin Rashid, who had usurped the authority of the Sultan by calling himself King of Arabia. The Turkish troops were withdrawn, but towards the close of the year it was said that the Sultan was making great efforts to induce the Sheikh of Koweit to recognise his suzerainty.

The contest between Mabarik and Bin Rashid is of importance only from the danger of its bringing into the field greater Powers, especially England and Russia. The paramount influence of England in the Persian Gulf has been tacitly assumed rather than expressly acknowledged by other Powers; the protection given to Mabarik is regarded as an open assertion of the

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