carries off the palm, whilst the superiority in the breeding of domestic animals remains the exclusive speciality of the nomad tribes. At present it is quite impossible to determine how many square miles of land in the three khanates are under cultivation or capable of being cultivated. The constant wars and troubles satisfactorily explain why so very many ruins' of once flourishing colonies meet the eye. As regards Khiva in particular, it may be assumed, without exaggeration, that the area of the land ravaged and laid waste by far exceeds that of the land. under cultivation. With the exception of a few products which the khanates interchange with each other or export to Russia, only such articles are produced as are required for home consumption. In fact, there is no doubt that the quality of their productions at present could be substantially improved, and their quantity very materially increased.2

The eastern part of Turkestán is very rich in metals. Gold-washing is carried on at the sources of the Jaxartes, especially along its upper course and also in its tributaries. Silver and lead are found in the mountains of Káshgar-Dáván, Belút-Tágh, Bolordái, and in the Alá and Kará-Táu mountains. Copper is of not unfrequent occurrence, and very often there is excellent iron-ore; besides, there is no deficiency of sulphur, saltpetre, and salt. Coals have been found in the mountain-slopes of the Kashgar-Dáván and Kará-Táu. Jasper and turquoise exist in abundance.

1 As for instance Otrar and the adjacent ruins of Chankend (Yanguiken), Túnkát, Kosh-Kurgán, Chán-Kálá, Kizil-Kálá, and, quite in the south, Faizábád.

2 Vámbéry, Ueber die Produktionsfähigkeit der drei turkestânischen Steppenländer (Unsere Zeit, 1866, vol. ii. pp. 294-297).

3 Vide Journal de St.-Pétersbourg, February 7, 1866.

CHAPTER V.

THE HIGHLANDS OF CENTRAL ASIA.

WE cannot complete this geographical survey without casting a glance at the mountain ranges which gird the Turanian lowlands on the east and south.

From the high table-lands, which lie between the confluence of the river Kábul with the Indus and the uppermost course of the Amú, stretch in a west-south-westerly direction the mountains of the Hindú-Kúsh, being the watershed between the Amú and the Kábul; perhaps also the Parapanisus or Caucasus Indicus of the ancients. Another chain runs north-westward by the city of Kundúz as far as the Amú-Dariá; and, lastly, a third chain, which is the Belút or Bolút-Tágh, commonly called, though incorrectly, the Bolor (signifying in the Uiguric dialect 'the mountains of the clouds'). This range is known in classic antiquity as the Imaus, and contains the lofty plateau of Pámír (Pámer), or Po-mi-lo of the Chinese geographer Hwen-Thsang (in his book 'Pien-i-tien '), which the Kirghiz, from its great elevation, namely, 14,000 P. F. above the level of the sea, have significantly designated Bam-iDuniah, the roof of the world." Since the discovery in 1838, by Lieutenant Wood, of the Indian Navy, of the Pámír mountain system, no greater results have been

1

1 Concerning Pámir compare Peschel, Geschichte der Erdkunde, p. 159.

achieved in these regions than by the researches of M. A. Fedchenko;' in 1871 he undertook a journey across Kokán and southwards over the adjacent high table-land of the Alái mountains as far as the gigantic mountain ridge, recently discovered, which forms the southern boundary of the Alái plateau, and very probably separates it from the Pámír. Through the explorations of this English officer on the south, and of the Russian traveller on the north, the Bolút-Tágh, or the Pámír system, has been admitted to be a north-westerly continuation of the Himalaya range, although Humboldt represented it as having a meridional direction, and forming a transverse barrier connecting the Thián-Shán with the Himalaya mountains. The HindúKúsh, properly the Hindú-Koh,2 meaning the Indian mountains (in Sanscrit Gravakasas, signifying the shining rocky mountains,' hence Graucasus of Pliny3), may in like manner be considered to be a continuation towards the west of the Himalaya range. From the point of junction of the mountain ranges on the north of the river Kábul, it stretches in a west-south-westerly direction to the sources of the river Heri-Rúd ('Apetos, Arius,* of the ancients), and divides Tocharistán from Kábulistán. Very little is yet known of this mountain range except its western extremity, which is formed by the Koh-i-Bábá ('father of mountains'), a mountain covered with perpetual snow and 16,870 P. F. high. This mountain ridge

'Petermann's Geogr. Mittheilungen, 1872, chapter v. p. 161.

2 Koh signifying in Persian a mountain.

3 Historia Naturalis, vi. 17.

This name, as well as that of Horát, is derived from the Old Persian form Haraiwa, meaning 'rich in water.' Rud signifies, in New Persian, a rivulet, stream, or river. Herȧt, the only capital town, from Aria, founded by Alexander the Great. In classical history it bore the name of Alexandria (Αλεξανδρεία 'Αρείων).

becomes lost in a confused mass of moderately sized mountains towards Herát on the west and Balkh on the north. That portion of this mountain range which is situated on the north of Jalálábád on the river Kábul (the Euasples of the ancients), where the Khond reaches a height of 18,984 P. F., strictly speaking, bears the appellation of Hindú-Koh, and forms the mountainous country which is partly inhabited by the Pagan Kafírs or Sijáposh. The highest peaks reach an elevation above the perpetual snow-line, which is here 12,979 P. F. above the level of the sea, and are covered with snow even in June. The valleys assume the form of terraces on the mountain sides as they gradually descend towards the rivers Indus and Kábul, and in their nature and climate assimilate to Kashmír. The outlying spurs sloping down to the plains are lovely and fruitful. They produce wine of excellent quality and of wide-spread repute; besides this, apricots, almonds, apples, and other fruit grow wild in the valleys. The villages hang one over the other like shelves on the mountain sides.

On leaving Balkh the ascent is southwards through frowning glens and lofty passes between the mountains of the Mongolian Hesáreh to reach the valley of Bámián, where' colossal figures sculptured on the face of the precipitous steeps betoken the former worship of Buddha in this valley, which abounds with caverns hewn out of rocks to serve as cells for its secluded votaries. Then ascending three passes, each surpassing the other in height, an elevation of 12,400 P. F. is attained; sidewards from the ever snow-clad summit of the Hindú-Kúsh, the descent leads

The greatest 120 feet high. They testify to Mohammedan religious zeal and hatred of idolatry, for the Great Mogul Aurengzéb (according to others the Persian Nadir Sháh) caused them to be destroyed by cannon-balls.

eastwards down to that hollow basin in the centre of Afghánistán-the valley-land of Kábul. Here are seen, perched on rocky heights, the strongholds of the Afghán chieftains, whose horses climb the mountains with almost the same agility as goats.

Although the level plain of the valley lies 6,000 p. F. high, yet it is towards the west and the north, owing to the shelter of the snowy range above, verdant with meadow-land and luxuriant with gardens. Here the profusion of snow-white blossoms in spring and the rich abundance of fruit in summer and autumn have from time immemorial been sung with ecstatic praise. Even the cattle are fed on grapes for three months of the year. The valiant Sultán Baber, the Taimúride and founder of the empire of the Great Mogul in India, was enchanted with the climate, and declared it unsurpassed on the face of the earth. Drink wine at the castle of Kábul,' he cried, and let the goblet pass round without ceasing.'

The valley of the river Kábul, with its numerous waterfalls, leads chiefly through narrow defiles from Kábul in the territory of the Gilji Afgháns down to the low-lying plains of India. This is the only route pointed out by the nature of the ground, and consequently, notwithstanding the obstacles met with, is the only one that has been in all ages used for the march of armies. To the south of Kábul, after crossing over high mountain-passes and through deep gorges, Ghizní is reached, which is situated on a high plateau, where the snow lies on the ground till March. The city itself is now little more than a vast

1 Kábul, the Káßoupa of Ptolemy, called also Ortospane, bore formerly the name of Kaσñáτuрos, Kasjaparura. Compare the description of the city and country by Sir Alexander Burnes, Cabool: being a Personal Narrative of a Journey to, and Residence in, that City, in the years 1836, 1837, 1838.' London, 1842, 8vo.