form, together with the ability to retain these without undue repetition. (2) A similar rapid and easy discrimination of sound. (3) The possibility of establishing readily an association between a given form and a given sound. The tests were arranged into three groups and each was given to most of the members of the nonreading group and the results compared with those of a group of readers (number not given) equated as far as possible with the nonreading group with regard to age and mental ability. The following conclusions are drawn from these results: (1) Nonreaders as a group make association between meaningful material as readily as do the readers, but difficulty is increased at a rate in excess of that of the readers with increase in similarity between form and sound presented. (2) The ease with which an association is established depends upon the nature of both name and form. (3) In making for ease of association between form and sound, (a) they should be readily distinguished from each other, (b) they should have meaning. The bearing of this experimental work on the theories held as explanatory of the inability to learn to read or failure to read seems to be as follows: (1) The defect underlying inability to read is specific and not general in nature. "General defect" is more frequently accompanied by a loss of power in this as in all other abilities than is normal mentality. (2) There is nothing in the results to indicate the existence of a visual-word center in the brain. (3) The experiments support the theory that word-blindness is but an aspect of a more general, yet still in itself specific, defect either in the visual or auditory region or in both. There seems to be a primary disability of the auditory or visual regions resulting in the failure of the forms or sounds presented to gain any meaning.

M. S. VITELES (Pennsylvania)

516. SMITH, L. G., Speech Defect Resulting from Ether Shock. Ped. Sem., 1921, 28, 308-312.

A patient who had had a "dream" under anesthetic of suffering her tongue rendered immovable found on recovery from the drug serious impediments in speech that had not wholly disappeared sixteen months later. Before the above experiences the patient had spent hours trying to help a stammerer.

J. F. DASHIELL (North Carolina)

10. INDIVIDUAL, RACIAL AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 517. VORBERG, G., Der Klatsch über das Geschlechtsleben Friedrichs II. Der Fall Jean Jacques Rousseau. Auftrage d. Internat. Gesells. f. Sexualforsch., 1921, 3, 6-28.

In dem ersten Aufsatz versucht Vorberg an Hand historischen Materials die weit verbreitete Ansicht von der Homosexualität Friedrichs des Grossen zu zerstören. Die zweite Abhandlung gibt einen Einblick in das Seelenleben Jean Jacques Rousseaus. Wir lernen einen vom Wahn- und Zwangsvorstellungen verfolgten, in seinen Leistungen und Ideen genialen Menschen kennen, der trotz seiner psychopathischen Veranlagung und der Verfolgungen seiner Gegner unentwegt sein Ziel verfolgt. Zum Schlusse widerlegt Verfasser die weit verbreitete Fabel von dem Tode Rousseaus, nach der er ermordet worden sei oder Selbstmord verübt haben soll. Die zweite Studie ist deswegen interessant, weil sie zeigt, dass psychopathische und geniale Veranlagung in einer Persönlichkeit vereinigt sein kann.

SKUBICH (Magdeburg)

518. MOLL, A., Behandlung der Homosexualität: biochemisch oder psychisch? Abhand. aus d. Gebiete der Sexualforsch., 1921, 3, 71 pp.

Während man besonders unter dem Einflusse Steinachs zu der Auffassung neigt, man könne eine erfolgreiche Behandlung der Homosexualität nur auf operativem Wege erreichen, tritt Moll dieser Ansicht in vorliegender Abhandlung entgegen. Einerseits scheint ihm die Grundlage der Theorie von der biochemischen Veränderung sehr problematisch zu sein und andererseits weisen sehr vielseitige Erfahrungen an Heilungen Homosexueller darauf hin, dass eine psychische Beeinflussung und Heilung der Homosexualität oft eintreten kann. Eine Hauptgefahr für die Entwicklung und das Bestehenbleiben der Homosexualität sieht Verfasser in der Suggestion, dass die Homosexualität eine angeborene, unveränderliche Disposition darstelle, die sich der psychischen Beeinflussung entziehe. SKUBICH (Magdeburg)

11. ΜΕΝTAL DEVELOPMENT IN MAN

519. THOMPSON, J. R., The Interference Factor in Mental Processes. J. of Exper. Ped., 1921, 6, 12-20.

The assumption of interference factors gives considerable facility in explaining results in correlation and in transfer. A comprehension test and two tests of silent reading were given to classes in a boys' school. Initial tests were followed by a period of organized practice, and final tests at the end of five weeks. Where interfering factors operate to mask a common element the transfer effect is reduced. Low correlations can be accounted for without assuming numerous specific elements, and the real transfer may be greater than that measured by experiment.

H. E. JONES (Columbia)

520. MILLER, K. G., The Competency of Fifty College Students. Psychol. Clinic, 1922, 14, 1-25.

The aim of Dr. Miller's study was to examine certain data which have been collected relative to each member of the class in elementary psychology at the University of Pennsylvania during the academic year 1919-20. This information consists of the score obtained in a "general intelligence examination," the results of a series of psychological tests, a rating on estimated competency, and a rating based on the academic standing of the individual as determined by the final grades received in all courses completed at the University. M. E. GALLAGHER (Pennsylvania)

521. JONES, E. E., An Ancient Score Card. Psychol. Clinic, 1922, 14, 26-35.

Dr. Jones, some twenty years ago, when principal of a large high school, used a simple score card to check what appeared to be native capacities and abilities in students. He gave students a rating of from 6 to 100 on Mental Capacity, Intellectual Honesty, Energy, Ambition, Industry, Independence and Originality, and Promise of Success. In developing the score card, Dr. Jones continually had in mind prognostic evaluation. After a lapse of twenty years, Dr. Jones found it comparatively easy to determine the validity of the score cards as filled out for diagnostic purposes upon high school students at that time.

The score cards indicate approximately the individual differences that we would expect to find among students. There are approximately five groups; a very exceptional group showing a high range of possibility for future success; a group just below which shows capability and efficiency but not quite so good as the superior group; a great middle group of those possessing average ability; a poor group just below the middle group having possibilities in certain directions but limited as to general capacity and leadership; and a fifth group consisting of those who show the lowest possibilities of

success.

M. E. GALLAGHER (Pennsylvania)

522. VITELES, M. S., Sergeant X, A Study in Vocational Guidance. Psychol. Clinic, 1922, 14, 36-43.

An impaired memory proved a serious handicap to Sergeant X, in his former occupation as laboratory man. After a trial of five months, he found he could not successfully carry on his former work. The problem presented by this case was one of Vocational and Educational guidance. Dr. Viteles demonstrates that the use of the material and method of the clinical psychologist, whose instrument for scientific determination is the psychological test, and the method of such determination is the qualitative analysis of competency into its component specific abilities, is a method superior to the haphazard" method.

M. E. GALLAGHER (Pennsylvania)

523. WELLS, W. R., A Historical Anticipation of John Fiske's Theory Regarding the Value of Infancy. J. of Philos., 1922, 19, 208-210.

John Fiske is credited with making an important contribution to the theory of evolution when he called attention to the meaning and value of infancy which makes possible the prolonging of that period of life in human beings in contrast with the contrary condition in other animal groups. Not so long ago a book was discovered in a bookstore by Mr. George W. Robinson, secretary of Harvard Graduate School, called "Friends Annual, or Aurora Borealis," being a book of essays written for the Society of Friends and published in England in 1834. In this book is an essay entitled "On the Helpless State of Infancy," which is merely signed by the initials V. F. The writer undertakes to show the "graciousness of Providence in providing a long period of helpless human infancy." Both Fiske and this writer had the same objective, evidently, for the former sought to "justify the ways of God to man" by pointing out the goodness of the Power which was working in the evolutionary forces. It is likely that the limited circulation of the little book never reached Fiske, but it is interesting to note how difficult it is for anyone to be strictly original in his thinking.

T. R. GARTH (Texas)

524. WATSON, J. B., and WATSON, R. R., Studies in Infant Psychology. Sci. Mon., 1921, 13, 493-515.

One can make or break the child so far as its personality is concerned long before the age of five, the pattern of the future individual being laid down as early as two. Psychological laboratories ought to be able to make cross-sections of the infant's activity at different ages and tell whether the activities are running the normal course. This work would also furnish the necessary basis for adult personality analysis and vocational guidance.

The authors' experimental studies have made a beginning. Ninety-eight per cent of all infants at birth could support their own weight by grasping, and this persisted to age of 124 days, and much longer in a few, particularly those suspected of slow development. Reaching appearing as a learned reaction, both as a positive bringing of candy to mouth and as a negative reaction to flame, is established at 150 days. It is not aroused by objects more than twenty inches distant. No evidence for right- or left-handedness was found in 100 infants, either by amount and nature of hand movements or by anatomical measurements. Eye movements were at first tropismlike, later fixating and following linear movements, still later following complete circular movements. The Babinski reflex normally appeared in infancy, disappearing irregularly up to one-plus years. Sitting alone was shown by most infants by six months. Studies are being made on other activities: defensive responses by foot and by hands, blinking, crawling, extensor thrust, etc.

Effective stimuli to fear were found to be sudden removal of support and loud sound, but not darkness, animals, nor fur. The stimulus to rage was any hampering of the infant's movements. Love was aroused by a variety of stimulations. Conditioned fear reaction was produced in one infant for a white rat, not formerly feared; this was retained for several days, and was transferred to animate and furry but not other stimuli. The establishment of an adequate institution generously financed for systematic studies of this general sort on infancy is urged.

J. F. DASHIELL (North Carolina)

525. MERRILL, M. A., Relation of Intelligence to Ability in the "Three R's" in the Case of Retarded Children. Ped. Sem., 1921, 28, 249-274.

Two hundred and ten children in special classes of Oakland, Cal., schools were compared as to their standings in Stanford-Binet and