all shapes of organic formations are identical in their first elements, there can only be a gradual, not am essential difference between the soul of animal and man.

THE HUMAN SOUL DIFFERS FROM THAT OF THE ANIMAL NOT IN KIND, BUT ONLY IN DEGREES.

are

This proposition follows immediately from the first one of Huxley, viz: Unity of all shapes of organic formations. For if the elements of animal and man identical, there cannot be an essential difference between their forces. Professor Bock expresses this view with these words: "It is not my intention to signify that there is no difference between the faculties of the lowest and highest plant, or between plants and animals; but the distinction between the forces of the lowest plant or animal and those of the highest one is a difference in degree, not in nature." Darwin, in his famous work "descent of man," confesses the same doctrine, saying: "The conclusion arrived at in this work and now held by many naturalists who are well competent to form a sound judgement, is that man is descended from some less highly organized form." There are more testimonials to the same effect: "The enormous length of time during which the human race has existed, is a powerful argument in favor of the opinion-now generally accepted that the human race was originated by a slow process of development, from a race of non-human primates; similar to the anthropoid apes.." John Fisk."The mental faculties of man are merely in number, not peculiarity; in quantity, not quality, dissimilar from those of animals."-K. Vogt (in ages from animal life.) "The soul of the animal differs from that of man in quality, not quantity." L. Buchner (Force and matter).

Finally, from the identity of all organic formations, results the shallowness of the faith in human free-will

(as it is usually understood).

IS THE HUMAN WILL REALLY FREE?

Here are testimonials for this assertion. "It is quite impossible to prove that something (what ever it be) is not the effort of a material and necessary cause, and, in like manner, the human understanding is not able to prove that any action really is voluntary." Huxley"It belongs to the essence of man to strive for welfare, or to try to preserve himself. Pain informs him what he ought to avoid, pleasure, what to desire; therefore it belongs to his substance to love that which causes agreeable sensations, to hate what now, or afterwards causes disagreeable ones; his will is nesessarily determined or attracted by objects which he thinks to be useful; it is necessarily repulsed by those which he believes to be noxious." Holbach (systeme de la nature). "Man is a product of nature, also by his mental essence; for that reason, that which he thinks, feels, wills and does, also is founded in such necessity of Nature as the whole system of the world." L. Buchner (Force and Matter.) "Human liberty of which all boast consists merely there in that men are conscious of their will, but unconscious of the course by which they are determined." Spinoza. "Man is free, like the bird in the cage." Lavater, author of the physognomic letters. Finally, Feurbach, the most acute German thinker, and most honest philosopher, writes in his most significant work, “God, Free Will and Immortality," the following words on free-will: "The will and the impulse to happiness are identical. The will is the determination by our own accord, but within the determination of Nature which is independent from human will.-The will is the desire for some good object, be it real or imaginary.

Yes, man endeavors necessarily for welfare; this effort belongs to his essence.'

Our opponents will objec: "These views are downright materialistic; if you don't believe in immortality, and deny free will of man, morality is undone, and man is no more responsible for crimes which he commits, and cannot be subjected to punishment." We don't understand the necessity of human actions in this way; in most cases, man can reflect upon what he will do, can select the means and resolve. But his impulse for happiness is the foundation of all these mental functions. The mechanic works in his shop, the painter in his studio, the farmer in the field, the merchant in the counting-room, day after day, year after year; what does induce them to their professional exertions? The endeavor for happiness, and so far as they act in accordance with this endeavor, their will is bound, necessarily so, or otherwise determined. "But then are you not wretched egotists? Are you fit for a noble action, for self-sacrifice?" Why not? We know pretty well that other people must follow the same impulse, and feel us happy by the consciousness of having rendered others so though to our damage. While we render our fellowman happy, our own impulse for happiness is satisfied. The philanthropist feels himself blessed if he sees the eye of the brother to whom he afforded help moistened by tears of gratitude.

There are theoretical and practical materialists. The first ones confess the truths of a new view of the universe, without being, therefore, necessarily indulgent to vice. The others believe the doctrines of their sects, but are often hypocrites, and reveling in sensual pleasures, while they pass indifferently by the misery of their brethren. It is dangerous to utter the

truths of materialism, it generates hate, and persecution; it rarely affords profit and honor. While the orthodox arch-bishop of London has an income of £100,000, the infidel philosopher Herbert Spencer possesses not more than he acquires laboriously by his writings. No, the precepts of virtue remain always the same, whether we believe human will to be free or bound, for their fountain is the general immutable human nature with her innate impulses, among which that impelling to happiness occupies the first and highest place.

MATTER AND FORCE.

FROM LOUIS BUCHNER. (AN EXTRACT.)

This essay is an extract from Louis Buchner's famous work "Stoff and Kraft" (Matter and Force). I prepared it, because probably, few of my readers know the original work which is written in the German lang

uage.

MATTER AND FORCE.

§ 1:-No matter is without force, and, inversely, no force is without matter. Forces can not be communicated, only awakened, e. g,, the force of attraction is latent in the load-stone, and becomes active, if iron filings are approached to it. Forces are necessary qualities of

matter.

MATTER IS IMPERISHABLE.

§ 2: The grave-digger in "Hamlet" of Shakespeare, reasons in this manner, as he digs out a skull: "Imperial Cæsar, dead, and turned to clay,

Might stop a hole to keep the wind away."

We learn by this example that matter can take, by and by other forms, but never perish. Not the smallest atom is ever lost. Matter is immortal. We learn also from this theorem that the human body is immortal,