The rusty aristocracy would not agree. Now, fugitive liberals of that country presented a petition to the Directory of France in which they stated that the government of Bern infringed some ancient rights of their country, and requested its help. A French army made its appearance in Vaud; then the Diet resigned, and the old Confederacy was dissolved. Basel was the first city which set free its dependent country. The castles were burned, and the bailiffs expelled. In Vaud, also, the bailiffs were driven away, the castle Chillon (the Bastile of Vaud) occupied and trees of liberty every where set up. The 1st of March, in 1798, the French army commenced the attack, and took Bern after a short resistance. The revolution spread like a running fire through the whole country. Bern, the bulwark of the Swiss aristocracy, carried the other parts of Switzerland away. The country became a sacrifice of its political petrifaction. It was changed into a republic, called the one and indivisible Helvetic Republic. All its inhabitants enjoyed, according to the new Constitution, equal rights. But the French army was covetous; it levied heavy sums in the occupied land: 6,000,000 to 7,000,000 of francs in Bern, 822, 000 in Zurich, 3000,000 in Luzern etc. The whole contribution amounted from 13,000,000 to 14,000,000. The Forest-Cantons, after a short and bloody struggle (from April to October, in 1798,) were also compelled to accept the new Constitution.

But interior peace was not restored. There were two political parties, opposing each other; federalists and centralists. In two years five new Constitutions were planned, but the people rejected all; finally, by the influence of Napoleon, a fifth was proposed, and by the people, seemingly, accepted, because the number of

those who forbore to vote were added to that of the affirmative voters. The French troops were withdrawn. Forthwith, resistance broke forth. The old institutions. were in several Cantons re-established. The government called on France for mediation: but in vain; France denied it. Zurich and Argau also revolted. The government took to flight, the followers of the old administration arranged, in several places, temporary governments. The Helvetic Constitution was annulled, and the troops of the government beaten. Napoleon ordered the new government to disolve, and to send deputies to Paris; he would intermediate in the public affairs of their country. There they deliberated, under his control, on a new Constitution, which he revised, when it was finished (the 14th of February in 1802.) It was called the Mediation Act, and was the fundamental law of Switzerland till 1815. A greater power was by it granted to the Cantons than to the central government. One of its stipulations was to furnish to Napoleon an auxiliary corps of 18,000 men, and to replenish it annually by new troops. Most of these soldiers perished in his continual wars. Switzerland was now a vassal of France. The party combats continued in the interior of the land.

CONDITION OF THE COMMON SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

While literature and sciences during the eighteenth century were highly cultivated by the privileged classes of Switzerland, the common schools were in a miserable condition. The common people were only so far instructed as the wants of the church needed it; Though

there were common schools almost everywhere, still they were poorly organized. The school buildings, as a rule, were exceedingly defective. Frequently, real school-houses were wanting; the room of a farmer, or of the teacher, was used for keeping school; even in Zurich, the residence of the teacher was used as a school-room. In the Canton of Solothurn, two-thirds of the schools were without school-houses. These school-rooms were also used for common house-work. There was no special class of teachers; normal schools did not exist, before the middle of the eighteenth century. The teachers were mostly discharged soldiers or invalid mechanics. They carried on, as a rule, still another vocation, in order to make a living. This was necessary, because their wages were extremely scanty, amounting to twenty to forty francs a year. This one was a mason, tha a weaver, another a carpenter; many of them filled likewise the office of sexton. As late as in 1777 few teachers in the country were able to read, write, cipher and sing correctly. As for their appointment, much depended upon recommendation. This one was commended by the parson, the other by the bailiff, or by his wife, or by his room. For the wife was the mid-wife of the village, and the room of the teacher saved the parish the rent; the man was the barber of the village, or the day-laborer and messenger of the parson. One example to illustrate the ignorance of these teachers! A parson, visiting the school, examined the copybooks of the children. He perceived that the orthography of the copies was antiquated. He therefore, reproached the teacher. Then the teacher brought forth the Bible, from which he had taken the copies and showed the parson that they were written there in the same way. The minister explained to him

that this Bible was an obsolete edition, and ordered him to use a newer orthography. The teacher, in great excitement, cried that he would like to see the man who dared to overthrow the word of God. As the school was the hand-maid of the Church, the textbooks were for the most part religious in tone. Branches, like geography, history, natural history, were ous of the question. Only reading, writing and religion were every where taught. Arithmetic was taught but in few schools. In the country of Basel, it was studied only in Liestal. The instruction was given in a mechanical manner; the scholars were not led to understand what they learned, nor to think themselves. soon as they could spell a little, they must read the Bible and other religious books. Every scholar learned and recited his own lesson, and studied it aloud. The teachers treated the children in a rude, barbaric manner; the stick and cudgel were frequently handled. There was no compulsion about attending school, and the t me of keeping the school depended entirely upon the pleasure of the minister or of the teacher. These are the gloomy outlines of the old common schools before 1798.

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But the condition of these schools was not better in other countries, e, g. in Prussia. What did Frederic II., the king-philosopher, the most enlightened monarch of his time, for the common schools? Nothing. He ordered in $20 of the regulations of country schools: "In the country only the following text-books are to be used: the New Testament, the Bible of Berlin, the analyzed catechism of Luther, the contents of Biblical writings; the Christian doctrine in connection, the general notion of God, the world and man; the order of Salvation; the spelling book and Reader of Berlin;

the little book for the instruction of children in the country, containing several necessary and useful things." Consequently eight religious, and only two secular books were used.

2. NINETEENTH CENTURY.

Reforming Revolutions in Switzerland (1830).

Charles X., king of France, strived by all means to restore the dominion of aristocracy and Church. Contrary to the Constitution of France, he published, the 26th of July in 1830, three ordinances, by which the liberal Chamber of Deputies was dissolved, the law of elections changed from bad to worse, and the liberty of the press suspended. The provoked Parisians arose in insurrection, the 27th of July, vanquished the royal troops in a street combat which lasted three days, chased Charles X, and enforced a liberal government, represented by Louis Philippe, calling him "king of the citizens." The courage with which the French people defended their rights, and especially the bright success of the French revolution of July electrified the Liberals in all countries of Europe. In Switzerland, too, many Cantons revolted; but there was no blood-shed. The Canton Thurgau led the dance of revolution. The principal leader of the party of progress was Th. Bornhauser, a young minister. Three thousand citizens assembled in Weinfelden (the 18th of November 1830), and demanded a new constitution. Their demand was granted.

In Zurich, similar aristocratic conditions were prevalent like in all Cantons; deprivation of the people in the representation of the country, neglect of justice, concealment of the administration, inequal distribution of the taxes, want of communal liberty, and disregard of