army, and the valor, and good discipline of the troops. The vanquished Cantons had to pay the expenses of the war, about six millions of francs. The sum had to be paid in several installments; but in 1852, Congress. of the country remitted to them the rest of the debt, amounting to 3,334,000 francs.

The two Cantons, Neufchatel and Appenzel InnerRhoden who did not furnish their contingents of troops for the Confederate army, had to pay their amends: the first, 800,000, the other 15,000 francs; The whole sum was employed to create a pension fund in favor of those Confederates who, during the war, were wounded, and of the widows and orphans of those who were killed. By subscription, still 100,000 francs more were collected for the same purpose. The conquered Cantons must take care of their reconstruction. They remained occupied till the first installment of the war-costs was paid. The Jesuites, by dint of the Confederate occupation, were expelled, and new, liberal governments elected.

After the end of the secession war, the Diet wished to take in hand the revision of the Constitution which it had resolved on already in summer of 1847. But in January of 1848, Prussia, Austria and France sent to Switzerland notes in which they demanded to restitute to the seven Cantons their absolute freedom, and to abide keeping the old Constitution as long as not all Cantons agreed with its change. They, also, accused Switzerland to be the seat of a propaganda exerting for the downfall of the religious, political and social foundations of the states. Fortunately, then, the revolution of February, in Paris, broke out which France changed into a republic, and caused similar revolutions in Prussia, Austria and other German countries; those

powers could not constrain their insolent demands, for they had work enough on hand in their own states. Consequently, the revision could be undertaken without being disturbed. Switzerland was changed into a federative state with two Chambers, like in the United States of America, of which one represents the nation, the other the different Cantons. The interests of the Cantons were subordinated to those of the nation, and, especially, the sovereignty of the former ones limited. Besides these, the following are the most important enactments of the new Constitution: A national council, elected by the people, and a states-council form the National Assembly.

These fundamental rights are to the people warranted: equality of rights (without any privileges of the place, birth, family and persons,) free establishment, liberty of religion, liberty of the press, liberty of association, liberty of petition, and liberty of commerce and trades. The affairs of the post, mint, weight and measures were centralized. The cantons were forbidden to allow their soldiers to go into foreign war service for hire. The order of Jesuits is never more to be admitted. A confederate council, composed of seven members, possesses the executive power. It is elected by the confederate Assembly, and its president is called President of the Swiss Confederation.

CIVILIZATION IN SWITZERLAND

1830.

SINCE

The civilization of Switzerland made, in this period, such a gigantic progress that given in this narrow space. lic roads was much improved.

only its outline can be The eonstruction of pubExemplary roads were

built in all Cantons, especially in the mountainous and forest regions. Solid bridges were constructed e. g., the bridge of Mont Blanc in Geneva, which is one of the finest bridges in Europe. Navigation of steam-boats was opened on all Swiss lakes; first on the lake of Leman (1823).-To day there are in Switzerland more than a hundred railroads; the first was running from Zurich to Baden (1847.) The main line of the great Swiss railroad net, in North, East and West, was also constructed from 1854 till 1859. The length of all railroads of Switzerland, compared with other countries is only excelled by England and Belge. Mountain railroads were also built. The first was that of the Rigi, 6,000 feet high. The most celebrated is that of the St. Gotthard, 7,000 feet; it joins North and South Europe together. Engineer Favre of Geneva, who built it, and Dr. A. Escher of Zurich, president of the company which paid its expenses earned the highest merit for its construction. The St.Gotthard tunnel is the longest in the world: 48,840 feet. Next to it, there are, in this railroad, fifty smaller ones. Its expenses amounted to 238,000,000 francs.

Industry rose to its highest degree. There are, in the highest villages of the Alps, amidst the mountains, factories and looms located at a water-power. Cottontrade occupied the first place. There were, in 1830,400,000, in 1876,-1,854,000 spindles. Switzerland became the concurrent of Europe. Zurich took the head, where one man (Kunz in Uster) possessed the largest spinning trade in Europe. When young, he lived in indigent circumstances, and left, when he died, thirtysix millions of francs. In Canton St. Gall, 10,000 and odd persons were employed with embroidery. The products of weaving and embroidering found a market

in Europe, Asia, America,in the Orient, in Farther India, in the Sunda-islands, till Japan; their value was annually 80 millions of francs. Silk-industry entered upon its most splendid development; its principal seats were Zurich and Basel. It was increasing since thirty years, when the market of North America opened to it. The export of its factories rose as high as one hundred thirtynine and one half millions of franes (in 1868.) Clock-making increased considerably, especially, since 1848, when, in Geneva, clocks were manufactured by machines. Their exports, principally, took place to America and Australia. In 1872-18, 300,000 were exported to America; later, when this industry was rising even in America, the sale retrograded. Neufchatel still employs 9,000 persons. In Geneva, besides, manufacture of jewelry flourishes, which was exported to Italy, Spain, Germany and the Orient.

The use of machines in all trades gave origin to their fabrication in special work-shops. The first was established in Zurich, by Escher, Wyss & Co.; others followed its example. For a time, straw-plaiting was very important. Its products were, in 1840, sent principally from Argovie to the United States of America. Its highest flourish was from 1866 till 1869. In this time, its export to America rose in value from 300,000 to 3,887,000 francs.

Like straw-braiding, carving in wood had proceeded even from the people. Long ago, the mountaineers of Canton Bern had carved, during the winter, sundry objects to fit up their dwellings. Foreign travelers admired and bought them. Then the inhabitants began to practice this industry for commerce, and soon sundry firms arose in the back-woods of Bern. The increasing visits of foreigners gave to this industry a very bright

success, and there came carving institutes and drawing schools in existence. These products were even to America exported.

Public expositions, too, promoted industry. The most significant was in Zurich, in 1883. Switzerland participated also in international expositions, e. g., of London, in 1851, and of Philadelphia, at the Centennial, in 1876. It won, at the exposition in Paris, in 1855, the first prize for cotton-works, embroidery and straw-goods. Agriculture was also advanced, and breeding cattle in the plains and Alps improved, e. g., the value of cheese, exported to North America, increased, till 1873, to 2,000,000 francs.

Sciences and literature were, in this period, cultivated with great zeal.

MODERN COMMON SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND.

Most of the common schools of Switzerland are presently organized according to the following regulations:

PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

The Primary schools (called common schools, in our country) teach reading, orthography, grammar, compositions, arithmetic, elements of geometry, geography, history and Constitution of the country, universal history, natural science (zoology and botany), physiology, natural philosophy, religion, drawing and singing. The girls learn also needle-work. Text-books are used for the different branches of instruction. Colored representations of the objects of zoology, and botany, and an apparatus for physical experiments are found in the school-rooms. The teachers gather plants in the fields and gardens, and show them to the scholars for examination; some ones cultivate them in the school-gardens.