state. That is, it legally qualifies him, among other things, to teach, say, a first grade composed of pupils just promoted from the kindergarten. We all know that it is not the function of the School of Education at the University, or any other college to train students to teach in primary grades or in rural schools, then why continue any longer this absurdity in the certification laws of assuming that university and college graduates are qualified to teach in such a variety of positions.

Special Normal School Certificates. A diploma of graduation from the two-year kindergarten course, after a probationary period becomes an unlimited state certificate which qualifies the holder to teach not only in any kindergarten, but also in any first or second grade in any elementary school of the state.

A diploma of graduation from the three-year course for teachers of the deaf, after a probationary period, becomes an unlimited certificate qualifying the holder to teach in any day school for the deaf and in any elementary school in the state.

A diploma of graduation from the course for the training of teachers of commercial subjects, teachers of physical training, domestic science, agriculture, art, music, or industrial arts, after a probationary period, becomes an unlimited certificate, qualifying the holder to teach the special subject for which the diploma has been granted in any public school in Wisconsin.

Certificates of Graduation from Stout Institute. A diploma of graduation from the regular courses in manual training and domestic science, together with a certified statement showing the course which the holder has completed, after a period of probation, becomes an unlimited state certificate qualifying the holder to teach manual training or domestic science for which the diploma has been granted in any public school in the state.

Certificates Issued by State Board of Examiners. The state board of examiners are authorized to issue the following kinds of certificates based upon examinations conducted by them:

(1) A limited state certificate, based upon an examination taken by the candidate, valid to teach in any public school in the state for five years, except that it does not qualify the holder as principal of a high school having a four-year course of study.

(2) An unlimited state certificate, based upon an examination taken by the candidate, valid to teach in any public school in the state or as principal of a high school having a four-year course of study.

(3) A county superintendent's certificate, issued upon the candidate's passing an examination in certain subjects, qualifying the holder for the office of county superintendent of schools.

Certificates Based on Diplomas Issued by Educational Institutions Outside Wisconsin. Any graduate from a college, university, or normal school not located in Wisconsin, presenting to the state board of examiners satisfactory evidence of having completed a course fully and fairly equivalent to the corresponding course in any state institution and of having given to psychology and pedagogy at least as much study as is required in this state of candidates for a life certificate, shall receive a license to be issued by the state superintendent which, after the customary probationary period, becomes an unlimited state certificate.

Special and Temporary Licenses. (1) The state superintendent may in urgent cases issue a special license good only until the next meeting of the state board of examiners.

(2) The state superintendent may, upon the recommendation of the state board of examiners, grant a special license or certificate legally qualifying the holder to teach such special branch or branches in the public schools as may be named in the license for such a period of time as may be specified in the license or certificate.

(3) Upon the recommendation of the state board of examiners an applicant may be granted a limited special license for not more than one year qualifying him to teach one or more special branches in the public schools, the license being limited to one particular school to be named in the license.

(4) The state superintendent is authorized under certain conditions to issue state licenses to persons engaged in supervisory work in the public schools, or in teaching in a college, normal school or other educational institution in the state.

REORGANIZATION OF THE CERTIFICATION LAWS

To simplify the entire matter of the certification of teachers, it would be well for the legislature, under definite restrictions,

to lodge in the proposed state board of education or in the department of public instruction all powers and duties in regard to the certification of teachers hitherto exercised by the state superintendent and the state board of examiners, and the county and city superintendents, with powers to reorganize the issuance and determine the value of the various forms of state, city and county certificates as authorized by sections 39.15 to 39.32.

6. REORGANIZATION OF THE SYSTEM OF GENERAL AND SPECIAL STATE AID

METHOD OF APPORTIONING STATE AID FAULTY

Expense Not Equalized. The method of apportioning the common school fund income does not equalize the expense in carrying on the public schools. It is apportioned with no reference to the needs of the schools, and in many instances instead of removing inequalities of taxation it has resulted in intensifying these inequalities. Thus, a district with twelve children of school age will receive only one-fourth the amount that a district having forty-eight children of school age, and yet the cost of maintenance of each school is about the same.

The seven-tenths mill tax is paid on the basis of wealth and distributed on the basis of school population, hence the county (i. e., the part of the county under the jurisdiction of the county superintendent) or city which is below the average in population, but above the average in wealth, may pay more than it receives. It has been estimated that on the whole cities receive back from the state more than they pay in and the counties receive less than they pay in.

The Apportionment Often a Bonus to Penuriousness. The apportionment has not acted, as it was hoped it would, as a stimulus in increasing the amounts raised by local taxation. As a matter of fact, in many districts of the state it has acted as a "bonus to civic indolence and penuriousness."

Under the independent district system, inequalities in school districts as to size, assessed valuation and number of children of school age all tend to produce great inequalities of school taxation. A small district with little taxable property and comparatively few children may have a local tax rate several times

as large as the district adjoining with large taxable properties and many children, with the result that the small district nevertheless has a poor school, while the rich district has a much better school.

The principal source of school maintenance must be from local taxation. But with nearly 6,500 independent taxing units in the state, and all apparently intent on keeping taxes down, some rather curious and grotesque things have developed. In one of the best and most progressive counties in the state, a few years ago, fifteen districts, having a combined assessed valuation of $6,300,000, raised the small sum of $575 in district school taxes. There are in the state at the present time many districts that virtually raise no district tax, depending entirely on state and county money to run their schools. A number of these districts are accumulating bank accounts.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF DISTRIBUTING STATE SCHOOL FUNDS

Devices to Correct Inequalities of Distribution. Many different bases of distribution of the school funds are used in the various states, such as:

(1) Distribution based strictly on the census. (2) Distribution based on the school census.

(3) Distribution based on school enrollment.

(4) Distribution based on average daily attendance.

(5) Distribution based on total number of days' attendance. (6) Distribution of a part of the fund based on the census, and a part of the fund divided equally among the several districts of the county.

(7) Distribution based partly on the number of teachers required and partly on the census.

(8) Distribution based on the number of children of compulsory school age.

(9) Distribution based on the judgment of the county board of education.

(10) Distribution based on the judgment of the county superintendent of schools.

Nearly all of the devices enumerated above have for their purpose the correction of inequalities of the distribution of school moneys, but they all more or less fail of their purpose.

Special Attempts at Equalization. In addition to these various plans, special attempts at equalization of the school burdens have been made by some states; e. g.:

(1) One state tries to secure this purpose by a grant increasing in proportion to the number of children in average daily attendance, and inversely as the equalized valuation below $3,000 per school child.

(2) In one state every town having a valuation of less than $500,000 may annually receive from the treasurer of the state a sum which will enable the town to spend for the support of the public schools twenty-five dollars for each child in attendance.

(3) In one state, every town whose valuation does not exceed $500,000 receives annually $500, but if the rate of taxation for any year is $18 or more on the thousand, it receives $75 additional.

(4) Some states provide special funds for districts which, taxing themselves to the limit allowed by law and reserving three-fourths of the money so raised for teachers' salaries, find that they cannot meet the minimum salary requirement.

(5) Some states provide equalization funds for poorer districts to be disbursed in direct proportion to average daily attendance and in inverse proportion to equalized evaluation per child.

SPECIAL STATE AID

During the past fifty years there has developed in Wisconsin a system of special state aid intended primarily to equalize taxation and to encourage local efforts in improving the public school system. But this system of state aid was not properly planned. It was added to and modified from time to time to meet certain emergencies, and now we find that it is not only incongruous, but that it does not to any appreciable degree serve the purpose for which it was intended.

RADICAL REORGANIZATION OF STATE AID NEEDED

Edward A. Fitzpatrick, former secretary of the State Board of Education, in a pamphlet entitled, "An Educational Program for Wisconsin," in 1921 declared as follows:

"There should be a radical reorganization of our whole plan of state aid. Our present plan-if anything so chaotic may be called plan-is the result of the accumulation of years. One