being roused from a lethargic state, appears stupid and confused; eye intensely swollen; lies down again, and sleeps soundly. 5.31.-Breathing slowly and heavily. 6. p.m.Sleeping comfortably. 9.30.-Walks without difficulty; looks. more natural; rubs the swollen eye with his fore-paw. The constitutional effects of the poison are evidently passing off. 12th September, 3 a.m.-Sleeping comfortably; breathing natural. 8 a.m.-Swelling of eyelids diminishing; appears lively. 5 p.m. Still improving. 13th.-Improving; opens the eyelids; the cornea is quite opaque, and there is a mucopurulent discharge from the eye. 14th.-The dog is recovering. 15th.-Except that the cornea is opaque, and some conjunctivitis remains, the dog is well; he is cheerful; takes his food well. It was evident in this case that the dog was poisoned by absorption from the conjunctiva. The constitutional effects were not severe as in the former dog, but the local mischief was very serious, and for a time, at all events, has destroyed the sight of that eye. The intense chemosis, no doubt, caused the corneal mischief. The results of these experiments show how careful we should be to protect the eyes when handling and approaching the cobra or viper in an excited state, when it is possible that some of the poison, scattered as the snake attempts to strike, might accidentally be injected into the eye. In another experiment a very minute portion of the poison was thus thrown into the eye of one of the gentlemen assisting in the experiments. The poison had been applied to a dog's nostril, and in the sneeze that resulted the accident happened. The eye was immediately washed and fomented, care being taken not to rub it, and no evil result beyond lachrymation, irritation, and transitory redness followed. EXPERIMENT No. 2. Some poison was taken from a spectacled cobra (gokurah), and a drop or two inserted into a pariah dog's nostril at 3 p.m Violent sneezing and profuse watery discharge from the nostril resulted almost immediately. 3.30. The sneezing and watery discharge continue, and seem to irritate the dog considerably. 3.45.-No constitutional effects of the poison manifested, but the local symptoms continue unabated. Two drops more of the same poison were well rubbed into the palate. 4.15.-No change. Two more drops rubbed into the mucous surface of the cheek. 4.25.-Not affected. The last applications appear to have caused no irritation. 5 p.m.-No change. 12th September, 3 a.m.-Does not appear to be affected in any way by the poison. The catarrhal symptoms have passed away. 13th. The dog is well. In this case, beyond the local irritation, no effect was produced. EXPERIMENT No. 3. A drop of cobra-poison was inserted into a fowl's eye at 3.15 p.m. 3.18-Eye already much swollen; membrana nictitans deeply chemosed. 3.30.-Eyelids quite closed; no constitutional sign of poisoning. 3.37-No change. 4.10.-Another drop inserted into the same eye. Much irritation immediately followed; the fowl is constantly trying to scratch the eyelid with its foot. 4.20.-Beginning to droop; nodding its head; sleeping as fowls do when they begin to feel the influence of poison. 4.30. -Head more drooping. 5. No further change; no worse. 5.30.-Eyelids greatly swollen, but no appearance of any constitutional action of the poison. 9 p.m.-The same. fowl continued to improve. The eyelids and conjunctiva became less swollen, and gradually recovered; and, on the 16th, the bird was perfectly well, and its eye quite bright again. The In this case also, as in that of the dog, the local symptoms were very severe, whilst the constitutional symptoms were mild and transient. They equally showed that the poison can be absorbed through the unbroken surface of a membrane, and that the conjunctiva especially is apt to permit of the endosmosis. EXPERIMENT No. 4. A few drops of cobra-poison were rubbed into the mucous lining of a fowl's mouth at 3.42 p.m. 4.15.-No effect; no sign of either local or constitutional disturbance. 12th, 8 a.m. -Not affected. 13th.-The fowl is perfectly well, and does not appear to have been in the least affected by the poison. In this case, as in the experiments on fowls and other animals, no evil resulted from the contact of the poison with the tongue and mucous surface of the mouth. The evidence of these four experiments is not absolutely conclusive as to the extent to which the poison may operate by absorption through a mucous membrane. They prove that absorption in the case of the conjunctiva and the Schneiderian membrane really does occur, whilst in the mouth absolutely no effect was produced. But the poison was not taken from fresh or vigorous snakes, that is, they had been some time in confinement, and its action may have been impaired. Sufficient, however, is shown to prove how dangerous the contact of the poison with the delicate mucous surface may really prove. INSIDE A BALLOON. HE handsome illustration on page 14 represents the interior of the celebrated French balloon "L'Union." The balloon lies upon the ground, and within it are seen M. Tissandier, with pencil and paper, making a sketch of a somewhat novel situation, and M. de Fonvielle standing up, giving instructions to have a hole which he has just discovered caulked up, if we may use the expression. M. Fonvielle thus describes the sensations experienced on entering into the interior of the balloon :-"We pass into the aërial car: the temperature is suffocating, and the thermometer marks 33° Centigrade, although in the external air it stands at 25°. This fact is not surprising when we remember that the translucent material of the balloon acts like glass, and while it allows the rays of heat to pass through it, does not permit them to travel out again. Seen from within, the balloon has a very singular appearance. It is a vast dome oscillating with every movement of the air. The light which travels through its walls is soft and toned, and the shadows of persons outside are projected on it somewhat like the figures in a magic lantern."-Voyages Aériens. Paris: Hachette. The Candle-tree in Australia.-Dr. Schomburgk, Director of the Botanic Gardens, South Australia, writes as follows:-I have at last secured and received per mail from Mr. W. Bull, F.L.S., F.G.S., in London, a packet of the celebrated Candle-tree (Parmentiera cerifera) of Panama. If I succeed in growing the seed and acclimatising the plants, it will probably prove an introduction of importance. This tree is confined to the valley of the river Chagres, Isthmus of Panama, and was discovered in 1866, and introduced by Dr. Seemann to England. He says: On entering a Forest of these trees, a person might almost fancy himself transported into a chandler's shop. From all the stems and lower branches of these trees hang long cylindrical fruits, of a yellow wax colour, so much resembling a candle as to give rise to the popular appellation, 'palo de velas' (candle-tree). The fruit is generally from two to three, but not unfrequently four feet long, and about an inch in diameter. It has opposite bifoliated leaves and large white blossoms, which, in its native habitat are grown throughout the year, but are in the greatest abundance during the rainy season. Previously, only one species of Parmentiera pendulus was known to exist, the fruit of which, called 'quamxilotte,' is eaten by the Mexicans, while that of Parmentiera cerifera serves for food to the numerous herds and cattle." Dr. Schomburgk believes there is little probability of success in the open air, except in the moisture of a tropical climate, but in conservatories, where there are the requisite appliances, there will be no difficulty in getting the plants to grow. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. [Under this head we propose to publish Papers communicated specially to the pages of this Journal.] THE RELATION BETWEEN THE PHYSICAL FORCES AND THE PHENOMENA OF VITALITY. BY C. STANILAND WAKE, F.A.S.L. IN TWO PARTS.—PART I. 66 IT the present moment, the hypothesis of a vital force is either quietly ignored or openly condemned by nearly all scientific men of eminence. Professor Helmholtz, in his remarkable memoir on "The History and Development of Physical Science in Modern Times," lately read before the German Scientific and Medical Association at Innsbruck, after treating of the doctrine of the "conservation of force," declared that "its application to physiology is especially important." 'According to our present knowledge," says Helmholtz, "living bodies derive their energy from external nature, exactly as steam-engines do. They make use of chemical forces, affinities of the combustible carbon, and of the oxygen of the atmosphere. They are as much subjected to the law of the conservation of force as inorganic nature." Professor Helmholtz certainly supposes the possibility of "something else of an imponderable character," besides the physical forces being active in living bodies. That he does not, however, consider this probable, is evident from the fact that, in investigating the operations of sensation, we have to deal, according to his opinion with nothing but "the laws of motion." In fact, the advocates of the hypothesis of evolution, as worked out by Mr. Herbert Spencer, must necessarily deny the existence of a vital force; even as they must accept the notion of "spontaneous generation," in relation to which Professor Huxley says:"While admitting that there is experimental evidence in its favour, Professor Haeckel denies the possibility of disproving it, and points out that the assumption that it has occurred is a necessary part of the doctrine of evolution.”l : In the presence of such authorities as these, it is dangerous to express an opinion in support of a doctrine so completely condemned, if not disproved. This, however, has not prevented Dr. Lionel Beale from still insisting on the existence of a force, the phenomena resulting from the operation of which are so characteristic as to exclude it from the series of physical forces, and to authorize us in terming it vital. The grounds for the belief in the existence of this special force are thus stated :"In all living beings there exists matter in a peculiar state which we call living. This living matter manifests phenomena which are different from any phenomena proved to be due to the operation of any known laws. It moves in a manner which cannot be explained by physics. Changes are effected in its composition which cannot be accounted for, and various substances are formed by it which may exhibit structure, properties, and a capacity for acting, in a manner which is peculiar to living beings, and cannot be imitated artificially, or satisfactorily explained. It takes up non-living matter in solution, and communicates its wonderful properties to it. Having increased to a certain size, the mass of living matter divides into smaller portions, every one of which possesses the same properties as the parent mass, and in equal degree."" The peculiar opportunities Dr. Beale has had of studying the phenomena of vitality in its primitive phase, give weight to his arguments, and it may be safely said that the vital force will yet retain its place until formed material can be artificially resolved into the germinal matter from which it is produced. But, however conclusive Dr. Beale's reasoning in favour of a vital force may be, the assertion that this power is "totally distinct from any forces or properties of which we are cognizant, 2 Protoplasm, p. 89. 1 The Academy, No. 1 p. 13. and not in any way correlated with any known forms or modes of force of which we have any experience,"3 must much weaken the argument in the eyes of the physicist. When he sees that living bodies "make use of chemical forces, affinities of the combustible carbon, and of the oxygen of the atmosphere," he will not believe but that vitality is somehow related to the energy of the ordinary forces of nature. And the physicist is not far wrong, notwithstanding that the vital force truly exists; even as Dr. Beale is on the whole correct, although that force is not so totally distinct from the physical forces as he asserts. This statement may appear somewhat paradoxical, but its truth is not difficult of proof. The force which Dr. Beale declares to be truly vital resides in the organic matter which it vitalizes, and when this matter has passed out of its germinal phase and become formed material, it is supposed, in the very process, to lose the vital force with which it had been previously endowed. On the other hand, it is not pretended that the physical forces can ordinarily give rise to vital phenomena directly. Before these can show themselves, matter in a special state, which hence is called organic, is required, and it is the organic matter which exhibits the phenomena of vitality. Even if it were admitted that organisms can be spontaneously generated by the operation of the ordinary forces, such forces would by the act lose their ordinary character, and become truly vital, as giving vitality to an organism. But the conditions under which what is called "spontaneous generation" has been observed sufficiently rebut the notion that any such process really takes place. The presence of matter already organized is absolutely essential to the success of the experiment, and it is simply impossible to prove that the "generated" organisms were not derived from this matter itself. The boiling test is useless, as a heat which is not sufficient to destroy the organic character or "potentiality" of the fluid, cannot be sufficient to destroy the organic molecules, to the presence of which that character is due. In corroboration of this assertion I may remark that I have obtained, by infusion, living fibres, not only from soot, but also from the ash of coal that has been thoroughly burnt. Moreover, invisibility of organic germs is no test whatever of their absence. So far as we know, they may be but little larger than the ultimate atoms of matter themselves. Every increase in the power of the microscope, indeed, reveals forms of life unperceived. In fact, as already mentioned, Professor Haeckel admits that there is no "experimental evidence" in favour of the doctrine of spontaneous generation, although "the assumption that it has occurred is a necessary part of the doctrine of evolution." The organism, then, we may safely say is, now at least, essential to the exhibition of the phenomena of vitality, or to the special action of the physical forces supposed to give rise to these phenomena; and in it really centres the dispute between Dr. Beale and his opponents. It is, in fact, the existence of the organism which has to be explained, and it is as impossible to prove that the action of the physical forces could originate organized matter in the absence of preceding matter in an organic state, as it is to prove that the physical forces acting in organic matter could not display all the phenomena of vitality.* Difference of Time between the Beat of the Heart and the Pulse at the Wrist.-M. Groux, the man with a fissured sternum, by the aid of a Chronograph, has ascertained that there is a perceptible difference in time between the beat of the heart and the pulse at the wrist, the time occupied being 235,000 of a second. This fact, says a contemporary, furnishes data that may be of great value in detecting aneurisms in some of the large arteries. We [Ed. S.O.] may remark that the interval has always been recognized, and that we imagine it is much greater than that recorded here. 3 Protoplasm, p. 92. * We must distinctly protest against the writer's assumption that there is any "vital" difference between what he calls germinal and formed matter. We confidently assert that no such difference has ever been established. The distinction is purely hypothetical.-ED. S. O. BIBLIOGRAPHY. ENGLISH. Entomologist's Annual for 1870. 12mo. 2s. 6d. cl. Jesse's Gleanings of Natural History. New Edition. 12mo. 3s. 6d. cl. FRENCH. Abrégé de Chimie. Par MM. Pelouze et Frémy. 6e Edition. Paris. Constitution de la Matière et ses Mouvements: Nature et Cause de De l'Approbation des Parties organiques et de l'Organisme à l'Accomplissement d'Actions déterminées. Par M. Robin. Versailles. Cerf. De l'Urine et des Sédiments urinaires. Par C. Neubauer et J. Vogel. Les Maladies de la Poitrine. Libraires. Par M. Priet. Par M. Goupil. Manuel de Pathologie et de Clinique chirurgicale. Par M. A. Jamain. 2e Edition. Paris. Baillière. Principes de Zootechnie. Par M. E. Baudemont. Paris. Delagrave. GERMAN. Anleitung zur qualitativen chemischen Analyse oder die Lehre von den Herausgegeben von Langenbeck, Billroth und Gurlt. 11ter Band. 3tes Heft. Berlin. Hirschwald. Chemismus der Pflanzenzelle. Von Prof. H. Karsten. Wien. Braumüller. Das kaiserlich königliche montanistische Museum und die Freunde der Naturwissenchaften in Wien in den Jahren 1840-50. Von Ritter von Haidinger. Wien. Braumüller. Die Syphilis des Gehirnes und seiner Hüllen. Von C. Rittershausen. Berlin. Preuss. Ichthyologische Notizen (VIII. and IX.) Von Dr. F. Steindachner. Wien. Gerold's Sohn. Jahrbücher für wissenchaftliche Botanik. Herausgegeben von Dr. N. Pringsheim. 7ter Band. 3tes Heft Leipzig. Engelmann. Lehrbuch der chemisch-analytischen Titrirmethode. Von Prof. Dr. F. Mohr. Braunschweig. Vieweg und Sohn. Lehrbuch der pathologischen Zootomie der Hausthiere. Von Prof. Studien aus dem Institute für experimentelle Pathologie in Wien aus dem Jahre 1869. Herausgegeben von S. Stricker. 1tes Heft. Wien. Braumüller. Studien über die Wanderblöcke und die Diluvialgebilde Russlands. Wien. Würtembergische naturwissenchaftliche Jahreshefte. Herausgegeben von Professoren von Mohl, Fehling und Fraas. 25ster Jahrgang 1869. Stuttgart. Ebner. Zur Geschichte der Syphilis. Von Dr. R. Finckenstein. Breslau. Morgenstern. The New Rooms of the Victoria Institute.-In response to an appeal recently issued by the Council, liberal contributions have been made to enable them to hire and furnish suitable premises at No. 8, Adelphi-terrace, Strand, which are to be opened with the new year as offices, library, and reading-room, for the use of the members and associates. Valuable contributions of books have already been made, and others are promised, and it is intended to obtain a supply of leading literary and scientific periodicals. The future meetings of the Institute, on the first and third Monday evenings in the month, will be held in the new premises; which, it is hoped will form a convenient rendezvous for members visiting the metropolis. REVIEWS OF BOOKS. Microscopic Objects Figured and Described. By J. H. MARTIN, Secretary to the Mid-Kent Natural History Society. London: Van Voorst. 1870. Part I. TH THE first part of this work, whose intended publication we noticed recently in "The Week," has now appeared, and it behoves us to say a word or two about it. It consists of a wrapper, eight pages of letter-press, and eight plates. On the latter are in all sixteen "microscope-fields," if we may coin an expression. Each field is just all that is seen under the power employed in the case in point, and is of course limited by a circle. Opposite each two "fields" is their description, the number of diameters of amplification being clearly stated. So far the plan is good, and very useful for purposes of reference. The text is also clear and terse. But the plates are not exactly what we expected. They have an amateur roughness about them which, we fear, will be detrimental to the commercial interests of the work. We ourselves do not object to them on this account, for we know very well that most of the handsome figures in microscopic works are what photographers tell us of enlargements, "touched up." Indeed, often SO "touched up" that they are an artistic generalization from hosts of specimens. Mr. Martin's drawings look honest and life-like, if they lack beauty, and we give them our praise. In some places the outline wants more definition, but on the whole we prefer them to many others that we have seen. In this "Part vegetable tissues are dealt with; they are all common forms, and all save those of the yeast-plant are good. When we have seen a few more examples of the author's handiwork, we shall be better able to predicate as to the value of his labours. Earth and Sea. From the French of LOUIS FIGUIER. Translated, Edited, and Enlarged by W. H. DAVENPORT ADAMS. London: Nelson & Sons. 1870. WE E cannot find fault with M. Figuier for the narrowness of his subject. Earth and Sea constitute a fine area for the reflections of the philosopher; and though we cannot rank M. Figuier in the latter category, we cannot deny either that he has amassed a considerable knowledge of natural phenomena, and has done a good deal towards what his countrymen would call the vulgarization of Science. It is, however, more as a work on physical geography than as a general treatise on biology that the editor offers this book to the public, and so far as we can see, the work meets a want. With the exception of the classic volumes of Lyell, we know of no elaborate and well-illustrated work in our language on physical geography-if there be such a science, and we think, therefore, that this volume, which Mr. Adams has been at some pains to correct and enlarge, will obtain a favourable reception at the hands of amateur readers. It is essentially a popular and not a technical scientific essay. The author adopts the plan of dividing his work into six books, each of which includes several chapters, and completes a particular branch of the subject. Thus Book I. deals with the situation of the terrestrial globe in space, and gives ample details of the different efforts of geographers and astronomers to describe the nature of the earth's movements, and to establish the now well-known laws of the earth's relation to other heavenly bodies. Book II. treats of the discovery of the form and dimensions of the earth, and in this we find one of the clearest popular accounts that we have yet seen of a problem very difficult to explain intelligibly to young people. In Book III. we have an account of the surface or general contour of the globe, of the great mountains and valleys, table-lands and plains, and deserts of the earth; how they originated, and what forces are now operating to alter or destroy them. This portion of the work is indeed a well-prepared digest of the principles of physical geology. Book IV. embraces a discussion of the different theories as to terrestrial heat, and also to the solar heat and climate. Under this heading, too, comes the description of glaciers and their influences, earthquakes, and volcanoes. The lakes and rivers-all fresh waters are comprised in Book V.; and lastly, in Book VI., we have a sketch of the chief seas and oceans, and an account of the sea-bed and its contents, and of the principal apparatus employed in sounding. The illustrations to this work are especially good, and they are as numerous as they are effective. As a sample we beg to refer our readers to the artistic sketch on page 15 of this journal, in which a number of Arabs are represented sinking a well. In connection with this illustration, which seems perhaps unimportant scientifically, it is necessary to state that Arab well-sinking is a very different thing from European well-sinking. The Arab knows no way of removing the water as he works, and consequently the work is done by divers, who frequently labour under the tremendous pressure of a column of water 150 ft. in height. In conclusion, we would remark that, if the editors of M. Figuier's other treatises had been as earnest and conscientious in discharging their task as Mr. Adams has been, we should have less fault to find with " adaptations from the French," and our English readers would receive something besides mere gaudy pictures, which, in some of the earlier of M. Figuier's books, are all that is to be found. Our thanks are therefore due to the editor, and indeed not less to the publishers, for this very handsomely executed and accurate and useful volume. Cups and their Customs. Second Edition. London: Van Voorst. 1869. Fantiquarian pursuits, as they were carried on some ten or fifteen years ago, can be called a science, then this little volume which Mr. van Voorst has issued is a scientific one. At all events, those who are interested in the history of the goblet should run through its pages, where they will find much ancient lore to interest and please them. The frontispiece, representing an antique glass cup with a sprig of borage, is extremely pretty, and will make the mouths of connoisseur collectors water. If Luther be right, and "Wein, Weiber und Gesang" hold so important a rank in worldly affairs, assuredly Cups and their Customs is not without its value. we are bound to say that in every respect it is more like a copy of the Proceedings of some Metropolitan Society than a Report of so distant a "body" as that which it represents. Its contents are numerous, but the following papers are among the most important:-"On Clave dicotomica," by A. Ernst. "A Visit to the Caves of Peñon," by S. Ugarte; "The Analysis of a Local Mineral;" "On Ursus nasutris," by A. Ernst; "Geologi cal Notices on the Auriferous District of Caratal," by Dr. le Neve Foster; and lastly, an excellent paper, accompanied by a very handsome plate, on an Excursion, by M. A. Goering, to the Caves of Guácharo, in the Valley of Caripe. We congratulate the Caracas Society on the great usefulness of its labours, and we trust that in future we shall receive its communications more regularly. Geological Report of the Exploration of the Yellowstone and geology, and is, indeed, in other respects a most interesting volume, of which we hope soon to reproduce some portion for the benefit of our readers. It is accompanied by a very large coloured map (4 ft. by 3 ft.) of the geology of the |