favourite sons for a venial error; the benevolence, justice, and prudence of Casimir would cover a hundred times more sins; and the small voice of detraction is drowned in the unanimous acclamations of his people, who having best experienced his character and felt his goodness, concur in styling him the 'Great'.

On the death of Casimir, which occurred in 1370, there being no immediate heirs, his sister's son, Louis, King of Hungary, was called to the Polish throne.

As Louis was the sovereign of another kingdom, the Polish nobles, apprehending that their interests would be compromised to those of his other subjects, made him agree to certain stipulations as a safeguard, before they would allow him to take possession of the insignia of authority. There had always been some form of this kind on the accession of the preceding kings, but it was merely a formal coronation oath, binding the new monarch to preserve the interests of his people. In the present case, it became something more than a mere matter of form, being made in fact a corner-stone' of the Polish constitution. This bond between the king and his subjects was called the Pacta Conventa, and has continued to be administered to the monarchs on oath ever since*, and is the Magna Charta of Poland. The conditions required of Louis were

* Subject to the alterations made by the diets, as will be mentioned hereafter.

as follow. He was obliged to resign all right to most of the extensive domains annexed before to the crown, and make them the benefices of his officers or starostas, whom he could not remove without consulting the senate, or assembly of nobles. He was not to exact any personal service, to impose any taxes, or wage war without their consent. Nor was he to interfere with the authority of the lords over their serfs. The power of the king was thus limited to little more than that of a guardian of the laws.

Louis agreed to these demands, but his conduct afterwards proved, that it was not with an intention of observing them. He fixed his residence entirely in Hungary, and regardless of the complaints of the Poles, filled all the principal offices with Hungarians. Great disturbances ensued, and the neighbours of Poland taking advantage of the discord, made frequent incursions. Happily, however, death removed the author of these troubles after he had reigned twelve years; and having no male heirs, Louis terminated the dynasty of the Piasts in the year 1382.

In this first period were laid the foundations of all the most important Polish institutions, its laws, diets, orders; and not only political establishments, but those of learning also.

The laws, we have seen, were formed into a regular code by Casimir; Wladislas first assembled his nobles in a diet in the year 1331, and his successor, Casimir, followed his example. These convocations were not merely assemblies of one order, but were

formed by the kings on the very principle of balance of power, between the aristocracy, consisting of the influential nobles, and the numerous barons who possessed the title of noblemen, but, in fact, constituted a separate interest. This is a distinction of no small. importance; all the army, at least those who fought on horseback, were styled nobles, for miles and nobilis were synonymous.

The commercial classes were not admitted to any great privileges, since at that time they consisted chiefly of foreigners and Jews. The latter people, indeed, had obtained possession of most of the ready money in Poland, as well as elsewhere. Boleslas II. granted them a charter in 1264, and the same protection was extended to them by Casimir the Great. It is said that this prince was interested in their favour by Esther, a young Jewess, of whom he was enamoured. Cracow was in his time one of the Hanse towns in alliance with forty other cities in Europe. The Exchange, still standing, impresses us with a high idea of the commerce of this age, thus entrusted to the Jews. So sedulously did this industrious people avail themselves of their advantages, that at the marriage of Casimir's grand-daughter, Elizabeth, Wierzynck, a Jewish merchant of Cracow, requested the honour of being allowed to make the young bride a marriage present of 100,000 florins of gold, an immense sum at that time, and equal to her dowry from her grandfather.

With regard to the learning of this period, we first

meet with the monkish historian, Gallus, who wrote between the years 1110 and 1135. His history commences in 825, and extends to 1118. According to the custom of his order, he wrote in bad Latin verse. He was followed by Matthew Cholewa, Bishop of Cracow, and Vincent Kadlubek. This latter writer was also diocesan of the same see, and was born about the year 1160. He wrote in the time of Casimir the Just, and in his history attempts to penetrate the mysteries of the Polish origin. But the circumstance which most conduced to the promotion of learning in Poland, was the foundation of the University of Cracow, by Casimir the Great, in 1347. It was regulated in imitation of that of Paris, and such eminence had its professors attained in a short time, that Pope Urban V. estimated it, in 1364, as equal to any of the universities of Europe.

CHAPTER II.

Hedwiga marries Jagellon, Duke of Lithuania.-Jagellon Dynasty commences 1386.-Lithuanians.-Their Origin, Religion, and History.-Union with Poland.-Union of the Romish and Greek Churches.-Jagellon defeats the Teutonic Knights.-Wladislas succeeds, 1433.-Defeats the Sultan Amurath.-Is killed in the Battle of Varna.-Casimir IV. Subdues the Teutonic Knights.-Polish Prussia added to the Kingdom.-Origin of the Polish Diets, 1468. -State of Learning in Poland under Casimir.-Printing introduced. John Albert, 1492. Ascendancy of the Nobles.-Alexander.-Sigismund I.—Annihilation of the Teutonic Knights.-Sigismund-Augustus.-Order of the Livonian Knights suppressed.-Union with Lithuania consolidated.-State of Learning under Sigismund.-Copernicus.-Zaluzianski, the Polish Linnæus.-Religious Toleration. Trade of the Jews.-Termination of the Jagellon dynasty, 1572.-Remarks on this Period.

LOUIS having no male heirs, the Poles called his daughter Hedwiga to the throne in 1384. Between the death of Louis and the accession of Hedwiga, there was an interregnum of two years, occupied in opposing the pretensions of Sigismund, marquis of Brandeburg, who had married the elder daughter of Louis. It was stipulated, however, that she should follow the will of her new subjects in the choice of a husband, and that he should constantly reside in Poland. Many candidates offered themselves for that hand which was dowered with a king