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tained about 400,000 male inhabitants, including 40,000 cavalry. In July of the same year, the emperor visited in person many of the colonies, and publicly expressed his satisfaction with their condition. As this system is extended, the conscription and recruiting hitherto practised must gradually fall into disuse. The empire, on its only assailable side, is thus in a continual state of defence; this living rampart also compensates for the want of fortresses, of which there are none of much importance in Russia. General count Araktschejeff was, till the death of Alexander, the commander-in-chief of all the military colonies of the empire. In January, 1824, all the military cantonists of the military orphan schools (in which reading, writing and arithmetic are taught on the Lancastrian plan, and the soldiers' catechism explained), were made subordinate to the commander-in-chief of the military colonies. Of the cantonists, a considerable number yearly enter the military service, in the place of those of the reserves, who have been drafted to supply the numbers of the agricultural soldiers. The boys then succeed to the places vacated by these cantonists, and so on. A military education is the peculiar support of this system, which subjects the peasant to a military police. For the education and support of the boys and cantonists, the revenue obtained from the release of recruits is applied. By the ukase of Dec. 29, 1823, the possessors of landed property in the thinly settled governments were released from the duty of levying recruits, by the payment of a certain sum of money; 3500 of these releases, at 2000 roubles paper money each, were issued, which produce an income to the state of 7,000,000 of roubles. The expenditures for the military colonies amounted, according to the report of the commander-in-chief, in the year 1822, to 4,962,475 roubles,and the total expenditure since their organization, to 1824, amounted in all to 15,780,115 roubles. Of the 6,000,000 of crown peasants, 4,000,000 are sufficient to furnish quarters to the whole army. Thus Russia, together with her present army of 8-900,000 men (according to the rolls, though not in actual service), would have one equally strong in her colonists, which can be recruited from the cantonists and the body of reserve, without interruption, and in the best manner. A very despotic authority will, however, be requisite to preserve a body of 2,000,000 of soldiers, who have houses and families, under military discipline and restrictions. This system, since

the death of the emperor Alexander, has been extended no farther, but, as far as it was already in existence, has been retained, and was for a time under the direction of general Diebitsch. Mr. Lyall, an Englishman, in 1822, visited the Russian military colonies, and gave an account of them in his Travels through Russia (London, 1824).

MILITARY DISTRICT, or MILITARY FRONTIER (in German, Militairgrenze); a district of the Austrian monarchy, containing 18,230 square miles, with 99,000 inhabitants; which stretches 920 miles along the Hungarian and Transylvanian frontiers, as far as they border on the Turkish territory. It has a military constitution, and the inhabitants are soldiers and peasants at the same time. They have received the hereditary use of the land, for which they are obliged to render certain services to the government, amongst which the military service is the most important. They form thus an uninter rupted cordon against the Turks, and the Austrian government has an army always ready without great expense. The soldiers actually in service belonging to this district amount, in peace, to 45,000 men. In 1815, they amounted to 62,000 men. These frontier soldiers protect their country against the Turks and the plague, without pay. When they are marched against enemies in a different quarter, they have the common pay of other soldiers. In the 30 years' war, in the Aus trian war of succession, and in the seven years' war, their services were important; and still more so in the repeated contests between Austria and Turkey. At the beginning of the French revolutionary war, no less than 100,000 of them appeared in the field. They have shown themselves undeviatingly faithful to their monarch. Their military officers exercise also the civil and judicial authority. The highest office is called the generalcommando, under whom stand the commandos of the regiments. The whole country is divided into five generalships (generalate), which, in 1815, contained three fortresses, eleven cities (or, as they are called, military communities, which have their own magistrates), 24 market towns and staff quarters, and 1995 villages. In the generalship of Carlstadt and Warasdin, the most important places are Karlobago, Zengh and Bellowar; in the generalship of Banat, Petrinia and Kostainicza; in the Sclavonic generalship, or that of Peterwardein, Old and New Gradisca, Peterwardein, Carlowitz and Sem

however, so high as in the Prussian, in which no person can be promoted without a severe examination. Besides the regimental schools in this army, mentioned above, every division has its school, to which young sergeants, &c., are admitted (if they appear, on examination, to possess the necessary elementary knowledge), in order to prepare themselves for examination for a lieutenancy. Mathematics, history, geography, statistics, the applied mathematics, modern languages, particularly French, and the military sciences (q. v.), are here the chief subjects of study. The artillery corps and engineer corps have their separate schools for young officers, to prepare themselves for examination for the rank of captain. The captain must continue his studies by himself, to stand an examination for the rank of major. Of the troops of the line, every regiment is allowed to send a few of its young officers, who must have shown great diligence, talent, and considerable acquirements, to the general military school in Berlin-an institution of a very high character. Here the highest branches of mathematics, geology and mineralogy, chemistry and natural philosophy, history, politics, the military sciences, languages, &c., are taught in a course which occupies three years. The officers also attend such lectures in the university as they choose. It is evident how much such establishments must raise the standard of learning in the whole army, and, indeed, the corps of officers contains some of the most accomplished men in Prussia. In France, the former cadet houses have been called, since the revolution, military schools. (For the military academy at West Point, see West Point.)

MILITARY SCIENCES have, by some of the latest writers, been divided into the following heads:-1. Tactics, i. e. the science of the drilling of an army, as well as of disposing and directing it in battle, requiring, of course, an acquaintance with the different kinds of arms. The artillerist devotes himself particularly to the ordnance, and the various branches of science requisite for its proper management. The lower, or elementary tactics, treats of the drilling and formation of soldiers, and accustoming them to the movements of small and large divisions, and varies in character with the different regulations of different armies. Tactics proper treats of the mode of disposing troops in the actual combat, and of the peculiar use of each species of force, cavalry, infantry, both heavy and light, and artillery. With them

is nearly connected the choice of camps, or castrametation (q. v.), though, since the introduction of the system of requisition, this branch of military science has gone almost entirely out of use. The knowledge of the employment of pontons seems also to fall within this department. 2. Strategy, the science of forming the plans of operation, and of directing armies accordingly. It has been but lately treated as an independent branch, since von Bulow wrote on the subject. Many military writers will not as yet admit such a division; but little doubt can exist that it will be universally adopted. (See, among other works, Principles of Strategy, elucidated by the Description of the Campaign of 1796, in Germany, by the archduke Charles, q. v.) 3. The branch which treats of the just understanding and proper use of the surface of the earth for military purposes. The tactics of our time can overcome a number of obstacles, arising from the character of the ground, which were formerly considered insurmountable; still, however, this department of military science, embracing, as it does, a knowledge of the usual character of the ground under given circumstances, the course of rivers, of mountains, valleys, geological formations, &c., remains indispensable for a useful officer. To this branch belongs, or, at least, with it is intimately connected, reconnoitring, surveying, drawing of topographical maps, &c. 4. Military Architecture, or Fortification, which teaches how to fortify any given point by artificial means, so that a few persons may be able to defend themselves against the attacks of many. It embraces the construction of proper fortresses (fortification permanente or royale), the attack and defence of fortified places, and the knowledge of field fortification (fortification passagère), which treats of the construction, attack and defence of redoubts in the field, raised for transitory purposes, and not so solid as in standing fortifications. 5. Military History and Biography, which embraces a knowledge of all important wars, and also of the various organizations of armies, the principles upon which war has been carried on, the different arms used, and the consequences attending their use, &c.; also the lives of the greatest generals, and the resources which they found in situations where many leaders would have despaired. The history of military literature, to a certain extent, is indispensable for a young officer, that he may be directed to the best works of the different nations.

Of the auxiliary sciences, the most important is mathematics, which is indispensable for a scientific soldier; military geography, embracing a knowledge of roads, rivers, valleys, &c., the law of nations, modern languages, and gymnastics. The branches of study now enumerated are more or less essential to the well educated soldier; but they cannot make a general, any more than the study of the thorough base can make a Mozart, or the knowledge of perspective, anatomy and colors, a Raphael. Although it would be a useless waste of time to set about proving that scientific study is essential to a commander, yet the greatest general must find the most important resources in his own genius; and this must act with unfailing promptness. An artist, if unsuccessful, may renew his efforts; but in war, the fate of a battle may depend upon an instant decision, and a failure is ruin.

MILITIA (from the Latin militia); in the modern adaptation of the word, a body of armed citizens regularly trained, though not in constant service in time of peace, and thereby contradistinguished to standing armies. It includes all classes of the citizens, with certain exceptions, who are drilled at particular periods in peace, and liable, according to certain laws, to march, in cases of emergency, against the enemy, in some countries, however, not beyond the frontiers. The regular organization of the militia distinguishes it from the levée-en-masse. (q. v.) The militia exists in different countries under different names; thus, in France, the national guards are what, in the U. States, are called militia (see Guards, National); in some countries, they are denominated burgher-guards; in Austria and Prussia, Landwehr (defence of the country), while the levée-en-masse is called, in these two countries, Landsturm. In the articles Army, and Army, Standing, is given a brief sketch of the different organization of armies from the feudal militia to the standing armies of the last century, and from them again to the citizen soldiers of later times. The reader will also find there the titles of several works which afford interesting information on this subject. In the article Feudal System, the origin of the armies in the middle ages was briefly touched on. When the feudal system had rendered almost every nobleman on the European continent an independent monarch in miniature, he kept his own warriors in his castle or territory, and the difficulty of assembling a large general army, even for a good purpose, was im

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mense. In the cities (q. v.) where a more republican spirit prevailed, all the citizens were obliged, at least, to take part in the defence of their city, a duty which they were not seldom called upon to perform. The introduction of standing armies, chiefly in consequence of the endeavor of monarchs to render their governments more and more independent upon the nation at large, caused the citizens to take less and less share in the military service, and, in many cases, excluded them from it entirely; yet, while, in some countries, the services of the citizen soldiers were becoming every day of less importance, so that burgher-militia even became a term of contempt in many places, other governments began to foster the national militia. The Swedish army was, at an early period, a kind of general militia. The army consisted of twenty-one regiments, of which each owner of landed property was bound to maintain one man. They assembled every year for three weeks, and, during this time as well as in war, received full pay (as is now the case in Prussia). The Danish army was formed on a somewhat similar plan, about a third of each regiment consisting of enlisted foreigners, while two thirds were Danish subjects, who, like those in Sweden, were supported by the owners of landed property, but, in return, were obliged to assist the latter in the cultivation of their estates. In Germany, similar plans were adopted. The privates and non-commissioned officers of the militia followed their agricultural or mechanical pursuits, and were generally under the command of officers out of active service. They were only obliged to serve within the country. Frederic the Great used them to garrison the fortresses: the same was the case with the Austrian militia during the war of succession. The bad organization and unmilitary spirit of these troops rendered them the butt of the troops of the line. In some cases, it was even considered allowable, by the laws of war, not to give them any quarter, when they were employed out of the limits of their country, and were taken prisoners. They became extinct almost every where on the European continent. Similar, but better organized, was the English militia. The origin of this national force is generally traced back to Alfred. The feudal military tenures succeeded, and, although the personal service which this system required degenerated by degrees into pecuniary commutations, or aids, the defence of the kingdom was provided for by laws requiring