records into myths, dreams, or inventions, as Strauss in his "Leben Jesu" has done.

But he that believes in the New Testament as the word of God, must also believe that Christ knew the real causes of all those disorders, and being the mouth of truth, his declarations must be implicitly relied on; it must be taken for granted, that Satanic influences were at the bottom of those disorders, which Christ and his apostles characterised as such. The question, whether such cases occur still in our times, is entirely irrelevant; for it does not follow that if such cases occurred in the days of Jesus, they must still occur in our days; and much less, that if one or another case of demoniacy is shown to have originated in natural causes, that the same must have been the case with the cures related in the New Testament.

Science, sanctified by the influence of God's Holy Spirit, can, therefore, have no other task than to adopt this thesis as given in the word of God, and to attempt to exhibit it in its connection with the known laws of psychology, physiology, and nosology, to a harmonious view. In solving this task, it takes but one point for granted, namely: that there is such a thing as the kingdom of darkness, consisting of Satan and his rebel angels. Christ, the mouth of truth, has taught us, that there is such a kingdom of darkness, and since the notion of an "evil principle" is absurd and untenable, moral evil being no principle, but the very reverse of it, little or nothing can be advanced against what Christ says of the existence, origin, and design of the devil and his associates. What Christ and his apostles teach concerning the influence of fallen angels on the liberty and moral nature of man, is but too true, as daily observation confirms; and just as little can be said against the doctrine of Christ and his apostles, that these fallen angels exert also, at times at least, an influence on the physical-psychical life of man.

Here, then, begins the province of physiology. Who the fallen angels are, and what they can do, we cannot inquire into here, but must believe what Christ and his apostles teach on this subject. But human nature, the connection between soul and body, are subjects of a physiological inquiry, and however dark they may be, still there are some certain and infallible data that will lead to the truth.

We commence, then, with those diseases that are in appearance and symptoms analogous to the sufferings of the demoniacs

I. Epilepsy. This is not a disease, but only a symptom, that may be owing to various causes, which, however, have their main seat in the brain or in the spinal marrow.

II. Lunacy. This is no disease either, but a high degree of excitability of the nerves, subject to the changes of the moon,

which disorder occurs now and then in Northern regions; but is of far greater occurrence in hotter countries, where the rays of the moon are known to exert a dangerous influence.*

III. Blindness, deafness, curvature of the spine, may likewise be owing to various causes; deafness, for example, may have its origin in a disturbed state of the soul, while nervous persons in hot countries have become blind by looking into the full moon.

IV. Mental derangement, mania, and all "diseases of the soul," as they are falsely called, have been proved not to be diseases of the soul, but of the finer bodily organs of the soul. The cured lunatic is the same man again that he was before his disease; he knows again what he knew before, but had forgotten while he was sick. The substance of the soul lies deeper than consciousness. Its substance as to knowledge, will, and character, remains untouched, while self-consciousness is broken off by a derangement of the finer bodily organs, that are necessary to it. For body and soul act reciprocally on each other. It is a well-known fact, that the soul, with her will, passions, and notions, affects the organs of the body; for example, the shape of the skull, the expression of physiognomy; (for every vice is but an habitual sin, that, by being continually repeated, affects one organ or another so much, that it becomes entirely independent of the will.) These influences of the soul are slow and gradual. But the body influences the soul also. Such influences are, on the one hand, tempting, stimulating reactions on the powers of volition by the overdone organ; on the other hand, they are such as do not reach the soul herself, but only impede and confound self-consciousness. A brave officer, for instance, receives a wound in his head; a splinter of the skull affects the meninges, and delirium and raving madness are the consequence. Or, a pious, quiet man is taken with a severe fever, in consequence of his blood being poisoned; the activity of his brain is disturbed; he begins to wander and to utter the strangest ideas. Madmen and the like are bodily affected; the bodily disease must be removed, and, as soon as this is accomplished, self-consciousness returns. That such bodily diseases and sufferings may be contracted by sins and vices, we do not feel disposed to deny ; but sin is in no case the next and immediate cause of mental derangement, but only a mediate one, since an individual may be visited with this calamity without having ever been guilty of predisposing sins, while another,

* Those philosophers who brand all belief in the moon's exerting an influence upon man as superstitious and nonsensical, may profit by reading the following works: Kranzenstein vom Einflusse des Mond's auf den menschlichen Körper, Halle, 1747; Reil (Archiv fuer Physiol. 1 ;) Kretchmar (de astrorum in corpus humanum imperio, Jena, 1820;) with regard to the West Indies, the Journey of Count Goerz, Medicus, History of Periodic Diseases, Book I., ch. i. $ 3.

guilty of the very offences, continues to enjoy good health. The conduct of such persons is no safe criterion either; when selfconsciousness is disturbed, the innate wicked desires, freed from all restraint, issue forth from the obscured soul; sins that had been indulged in, especially those of a sexual character, become more violent; but it also happens, that sinful propensities, that had never been developed, appear now on the surface, and are thus very apt to mislead the superficial observer.

All these diseases, from epilepsy to lunacy, are caused, when the nerves or the whole spinal and ganglion systems are affected, by a diseased organ of the body. But it is known, that similar effects upon the nervous system can be brought about in other ways than by deranged organs of the body. We know there is in human nature such a thing as animal magnetism, by which the life of one soul affects that of another, independently of the known laws of matter; we know, for example, that an impure desire in the soul of the magnetiser produces the most violent pain in the magnetised individual; we also know, that by being magnetised, a person can be made a clairvoyant, his self-consciousness being thus interrupted. More facts than these are not needed to explain the state of demoniacs. If the nervous life of one individual can work upon that of another, in a manner differing from the known laws of matter, there is no reason to doubt, that the same influence can be exerted on it by other beings than human, such as fallen angels or devils are. These influences may be of a different kind, more powerful and formidable than those exerted by human agencies; but their difference can only be gradual, never specific.

There is, then, no contradiction between what Christ has taught concerning demoniacs and the result of physiological inquiries; but both fully harmonise.

It is not inexplicable either, that many demons should work upon the same individual at the same time; no more so, than that the nervous life of animals can be affected the same way. For there are animals, the horse, for instance, whose nervous life is infinitely more excitable than that of man, and the effect spoken of is exerted not on the spirit, the world of ideas, but on the nerves as the bodily organs of the soul, which the animal has in common with man. And if so, the swine near Gadara offer no insurmountable difficulties; their rushing forward is accounted for by what has been said; and that they found a watery grave in the lake close by, was merely accidental, merely owing to the nature of the place, which was very steep.

ART. VI.—A Glimpse of German Theology.*

A JUST estimate of German Theology, in its relation to the present and the future, cannot well be formed, except from a historical point of view. To appreciate the position of the leading theologians, if position is compatible with almost ceaseless motion, we need to know the point from which they have come, and the direction in which they are moving. This will furnish a clue to their future course, and preserve us from too much fear, as well as from too much hope. But as we propose to give our readers only a glimpse of the present condition of German theology, it will be sufficient to state,

First, that the old Rationalism, which half a century ago. was regnant in all the universities but one, i. e. Tubingen, has been, by fair combat, driven from them all but one, i. e. Giessen. As a form of theology and of philosophy, it is dead; and the historical doctors are employed in post-mortem examinations, and preparing it for interment in the tomes of their huge libraries. It was begotten of a lifeless orthodoxy, by the derisive, dogmatic philosophy of Wolf and Semler, which elevated the reasoning faculty into the sovereign arbiter, and reduced Christianity to only a tolerable ethics. Hence its name -Rationalism, because it rejects whatever does not graduate with individual reason. Under its influence, "The educated and the half educated classes," says Hase, "turned silently away from God, or at least from Christ, and even those who, like all truly exalted minds, had some longings after eternal things, congratulated themselves with the author of Titan, that they could penetrate much further into the Infinite than could.

* The Editor of the periodical from which this article is taken, justly remarks in a note (p. 866) that some of its statements "do somewhat more than justice to the orthodoxy of many of the leading German theologians." The correction introduced (p. 867), by the editor, on the statements of his contributor upon the subject of substitution or vicariousness, is undoubtedly correct so far as it goes. That Christ suffered something which was a substitute for the penalty sinners had deserved, is a very different doctrine from that which teaches, that he suffered as the substitute, or, in the room and stead, of sinners. The latter doctrine, plainly taught in Scripture, implies, that what Christ suffered was the penalty deserved by sinners, or at least a full equivalent, an adequate compensation for it, the idem or at least the tantundem; while the former doctrine, though not inconsistent with this view, or at least with the tantundem, does not express or imply it, and leaves the whole matter indefinite. So far as mere etymology is concerned, the words substitutionary and vicarious might be applied in both cases. But the difference in meaning should be carefully observed and distinctly explained.

In the following article, taken also from the same periodical, Olshausen is described as a high Calvinist, which is certainly doing him "more than justice." Hengstenberg is, perhaps, the only modern German theologian who has propounded views intelligently and definitely Calvinistic, and he of late has fallen headlong into the abyss of Hierarchism, Sacramentalism, and Ritualism.—[Ed. B & F. E. Review.]

either Peter or Paul." But hardly a student can now be found who would dare avow himself the disciple of Paulus, of Wegscheider, or of Gesenius. "Except some young men," says Professor Tholuck, "who come from other countries, it is now an unheard of fact to meet with a rationalist." And Professor Kapff affirms that "learning in Germany has triumphed over Rationalism."

Secondly, the Pantheism which was one of the providential instruments in displacing the "rationalismus vulgaris," is giving way before the more powerful expulsive forces, historical research, and the evangelical spirit. Its germ lies back in the idealistic philosophy of Kant; and Fichte, who took up the line of development where Kant left it, matured it into subjective Pantheism. Schelling was dissatisfied with the one-sidedness of these speculations, and began at the opposite pole by assuming the reality of the outer world; and Hegel, partly agreeing and partly differing from him, brought the process in this direction to a masterly completeness in a logical, objective Pantheism. Thus both forms of this merely speculative philosophy, in the enlightenment of the nineteenth century, and under the lead of some of the acutest thinkers, ran into essential paganism. Strauss made trial of the Hegelian system in his Leben Jesu, (1835,) and his Christliche Glaubenslehre, (1840.) The former of these works, by the ruthless havoc it made of the evangelical history and doctrine, roused the leaders of the elect hosts, like a tocsin of war. Pantheism, which, for a half century, had been polarising, as many thought, harmlessly, between subject and object, eluding the vigilance of its pursuers, or beguiling them into allies, here threw off all disguise, and came vauntingly forth as a radical and rabidly anti-Christian power. The time was auspicious, and no country so fit a field for the engagement of the antagonistic forces as Germany. Nor was Germany ever in a better state of preparation for a fair and decisive issue. Strong men, well drilled in dialectics, herme neutics, and history were on both sides-Strauss, backed by the new Tubingen school, and against them, Hartmann, Thiele, Hase, Neander, Tholuck, Müller, Harless, Menzel, and others The battle was sharp, but triumphant against the Pagan philosophy. The best science in almost every department rose up against it. Marheineke attempted to construct a theistic system out of its supposed theistic elements, but failed. Goschel made a similar experiment in Jurisprudence, with a similar failure.

When Hegel died, in 1831, his philosophy was at the zenith, and he was the idol of its adherents. But in five years they were thrown into confusion as to the meaning of their master, and in ten, divided into two belligerent parties, one contending