"Let this be done, and we should cease to witness the farce of consulting the Chancellor of the Exchequer about observing eclipses of the sun, the Prime Minister about scientific Arctic expeditions, and the Treasury about tidal reductions. We should perhaps, too, then perceive that overworked Law Officers are not the best managers of a great, or what should be a great, technical Museum, and that fifty irresponsible gentlemen, however eminent individually, ought not to be entrusted with the grandest collection of Art and Natural History in the world. Nor would a wise statesman like Lord Derby fail to perceive, with all science concentrated under one view for his inspection, that a private local Society will prove no match for the complete and powerful State systems of Germany, France, and other Continental nations."

PINK AND WEBSTER'S "ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY"

A Course of Analytical Chemistry (Qualitative and Quantitative). By William W. Pink and G. E. Webster. (London : Lockwood & Co., 1874.)

THIS

HIS work forms a volume of Weale's Rudimentary Series, and is advertised "as specially adapted for the use of those students who intend competing in the Advanced or Honours Stage Examinations (Inorganic Chemistry) of the Science and Art Department, also for preparing those intended to sit for the higher class examinations at Colleges, Public Schools," &c. The success which several well-known serial publications of a similarly special nature have deservedly had, appears to have stimulated the publishers of Weale's Series to embark in this enterprise. As the excellence of most of their former publications will be generally admitted, we can only regret that a literary (?) production displaying such deplorable ignorance should ever have found a place in their series. It has rarely been our duty to pass judgment on a more carelessly got-up book. Had it not been advertised as specially adapted for the use of the Science Classes under the Science and Art Department, we might have put it aside with a hearty laugh over the many absurd blunders it contains. Since a practice has, however, sprung up of late to cater for the wants of Science Classes, by printing books (sometimes obtained on commission) privately, and advertising them by means of post-cards, at so many postage stamps a copy, whereby these books manage to escape the eye of the reviewer, and as we fear that much mischief is being done by certain cheap cram-books, strung together with a view to save the teacher as much trouble as possible, our readers will perhaps bear with us if we examine the book before us somewhat closely. If rumour speaks true, some teachers manage to teach chemistry even analytical

ing the simplest experiments. Questions from previous examinations are eagerly collected and "worked" in the belief that the examiner is sure to give, if not the same questions, at least others of a similar nature. We need not fear giving offence to those earnest and hard-working men, engaged, often on a mere pittance and under most adverse and discouraging circumstances, in imparting a sound knowledge of chemistry in places which would not otherwise be reached by any educational efforts, if we conclude from the course of analytical chemistry before us, that some teachers (Mr. Webster styles himself Lecturer on Metallurgy and the Applied Sciences, Nottingham) are deplorably ignorant of the science they profess to teach. Beginning on p. 4, we are told that "the term atom is sometimes applied to a compound as well as simple radicals, such as ammonia, hydroxyl, &c.": that "for fixed solids which do not vaporise, the atomic weights are referred to the element lithium, the atomic weight being determined by the amount of heat which any body contains, when it is at the same temperature as lithium, both being the same weight, lithium being considered as seven." On p. 7, "difference of attraction is called the bond affinity, that is, it is assumed that the different atoms possess power, lines of force, or points of attraction, called by Dr. Frankland bonds." On p. 12, we are informed, that "there are four different forms of notation, or formulæ in present use, two of which are graphical, viz. the glyptic and graphic formulæ. The other two, viz. the empirical and the constitutional or rational, are the symbolic representations." We give it upon the authority of our joint authors, that "Dr. Crum Brown was the first to introduce this form of formulæ, and that it has now been adopted by Dr. Frankland, and generally throughout the kingdom." And on p. 14, we are told, that "students who do not already understand the constitutional formulæ are strongly ad vised to obtain a complete knowledge of them, not only as an addition to their knowledge, but because the other is now not recognised by many colleges, or allowed in many examinations." For fear our authors' inadvertence should lead to further mischief, we may at once state that, to our knowledge, such is not the case, and that the authors are as much in the dark about what is recognised by many colleges or "allowed in many examinations" as they are about chemical analysis.

We can only pick out some of the choicest specimens from the authors' analytical bouquet. Beginning on p. 26, we are told that "deflagration is the arrangement of the crys tals of a substance, and is, in ordinary terms, the crackling of a body when exposed to heat;" on p. 28, that "hardly any amount of reading or lecture-hearing can produce a practical analyst, as only practice can make perfect, and therefore the student is strongly recommended to make the experiments himself." We for once entirely agree with the theory, but strongly object to the "practice" of our joint authors. The information on p. 30, that "melted lead cannot be poured even in a cold pla tinum crucible without spoiling it, and that a drop of lead, tin, or bismuth, falling upon a red-hot platinum vessel invariably makes a hole in it," we owe probably to the sad experience gained by the metallurgical partner in the joint-authorship, and science-students possessing platinum

vessels must surely feel thankful for the hint. Great confusion of ideas seems to prevail, however, on the subject of platinum, for we are told on p. 31 that "platinum combines easily with silica and carbon, so that the contact of platinum crucibles with charcoal at a very high temperature must be avoided," together with several other absurd precautions which we will not quote. On p. 33, there figures an apparatus for rapid filtration in an atmosphere of steam, which we have seen before in Normandy's Introduction to his translation of Rose, and which we should have thought had been superseded long ago by more perfect methods of filtration.

As specimens of analytical knowledge (?) we quote p. 57, "hydrochloric acid gives a precipitate on dilution with water (distilled) if BaCl, or SO,Ho, be present;" p. 38, "dilute sulphuric acid contains more lead, and lead is scarcely soluble in concentrated acid;" p. 42, "A solution of baric chloride must be neutral to test-paper, after precipitation by sulphuric acid; " p. 43, "sodic p. 43, "sodic carbonate must completely volatilise ;" p. 46, "hydrofluosilcic acid can be obtained from the chemists in indiarubber bottles."

The analytical tables on pp. 57 to 73 are equally deficient and faulty. We are told to test for ammonia, after having ignited on platinum foil; "a watch-glass becomes corroded on the addition of baric chloride to a neutral solution of salts," "hydrobromic acid turns starch-paper blue," "sodic hydrate," on p. 94,"precipitates light-coloured ferric hydrate which turns dirty-green." Upon heating chlorates, p. 115," a very violent deflagration ensues." The authors appear never even to have prepared oxygen gas. The quantitative knowledge displayed by the authors. is quite on a par with the choice bits of qualitative chemical information so liberally and innocently volunteered by them. We will not tire our readers, however, by any further quotations, but cannot refrain from firing a parting shot or two by quoting from p. 120, where we are told that " Chlorine is prepared by the mixing of salt, hydrochloric acid and manganic oxide; this last, MnO2, has no chemical reaction in the last equation;" and from p. 136, on which we are told that "inorder to keep the edges of the balance free from rust, it is a very good practice to place inside the case a beaker, half-filled with sulphuric acid or baric chloride." A dialyser is described on p. 171 as “an apparatus having sides and top of gutta-percha, and bottom of parchment, and is used for the separation of urea and other crystallisable salts from urine."

Need we do more than recommend the authors to act upon their own advice (p. 2), and "to speedily endeavour to obtain a complete knowledge of the composition of bodies, and make themselves conversant with the formulæ &c.," of which they exhibit so deplorable an ignorance, before they again venture upon enlightening the public on the subject of chemistry.

THE RACES OF MANKIND The Races of Mankind: being a Popular Description of the Characteristics, Manners, and Customs of the Principal Varieties of the Human Family. By Robert Brown, M.A., Ph.D., &c. (Cassell, Petter, and Galpin). THE HE rapid growth of interest in Anthropology is proved by the appearance, one after another, of popular illustrated works: Mr. J. G. Wood's "Natural History of

Man" in 1868-70, an English translation of M. Louis Figuier's "Human Race" in 1872, and just now (though without the date it ought to have on the title-page) this first volume of a work on "The Races of Mankind." Of these, the productive M. Figuier's book is too worthless to say much of, and the comparison lies between the first and last. Both are valuable, and the ground they cover is so far different, that they may be usefully placed side by side in the ethnologist's library. It will be remembered that Mr. Wood's account of Africa occupied the first of his two volumes, so that his account of the races of Asia, America, Polynesia, &c., had to be disproDr. Brown, we portionately condensed into the second. trust, will be able to keep his scale more uniform. His first volume treats entirely of American races, and he speaks with personal knowledge of the Esquimaux and North-west tribes, compiling as to other tribes with discretion, and generally from not too hackneyed authorities. Such of Dr. Brown's illustrations as are taken from photographs and real drawings are good, and preferable to the too picturesque and imaginative cuts of Mr. Wood's artists. But Dr. Brown inserts some drawings which he had better for truth and good taste have left out. Thus, the Indian scalping his victim at page 68, though no doubt more like the reality than the engraving in vol. ii. of "Schoolcraft," from which it is a kind of rationalised copy, is a piece of sensational make-up; while on the next page a scene of Indians torturing a cap tive by a slow fire on his stomach, is still more objectionable. At page 284 is a representation of Conibos shooting turtle; this is evidently a fancy picture, and arrows shot at such an angle would glance off the animal's carapace; the arrows should have been shown of heavier make, and so sent up as to fall almost perpendicularly.

As only the first part of Dr. Brown's work is yet out, it may perhaps be a service to make some suggestions. Native words are sometimes wrongly printed, which gives an air of carelessness to the descriptions they form part of. Thus "inniut" instead of "innuit" (p. 5); 66 Manco Capas" and "Manià Dello" (p. 119), which appear to be intended for the usual forms, "Manco Capac" and "Mama Oello" (Mr. C. R. Markham would say that

Ccapac" and " Ocllo" are the really proper forms). At page 274, the account of the "couvade," the custom of the husband being put to bed or otherwise treated with reference to his wife's bearing a child, is compiled very inaccurately. Lastly, though references are generally given where long abstracts have been made from books of travel, Dr. Brown seems somewhat apt to make statements and use arguments without due mention of the sources whence he derived them. One consequence is, that he makes himself personally responsible for any blunder in the matter he thus appropriates. Thus, at page 147 a passage is inserted of which the following is part :—“ In the Ladrone Islands, the Spaniards found the natives unacquainted with fire; and when Magellan set fire to the huts of the Marian islanders, they looked upon the flame as a living creature which fed upon wood." Unless my memory deceives me, this passage is copied out of Büchner's "Man in the Past, Present, and Future," and has been already commented on in NATURE, not only as embodying statements which have been disproved,

Typhoid Fever: its Nature, Mode of Spreading, and Prevention. By William Budd, M.D., F.R.S. Pp. 193. Three plain and one coloured lithograph. (Longmans, 1873.)

THIS handsome volume is a thesis on the question of how typhoid or enteric fever is propagated. Dr. Budd adopts what is known as the contagion theory, and believes that every case of the disease is the result of direct poison, conveyed either by the air or more frequently in water, from the intestine of one patient to that of another. This theory is generally disbelieved by the best medical authorities in London and Paris; but, as Dr. Budd points out, it is not in large towns that the transmission of disease can best be traced. He describes with minute exactness as to time, place, and other important conditions, outbreaks of this terrible disease in secluded country villages, in schools, and other isolated institutions, where he was able to trace the steps of the epidemic from house to house or from room to room. We believe that a candid perusal of these cases will bring the conviction that the theory of contagion is fairly proved. Many of them are at all events almost decisive against the theory that this enteric fever is "pythogenic," ie. is the result of a poison which may be produced by any decomposing sewage under favourable circumstances, without previous contamination from a diseased person. The practical importance of the question is, that if enteric fever only spreads as Dr. Budd and other contagionists maintain, it is possible, and therefore of the utmost importance, to check its propagation. A great part of the book is devoted to this point, and the mode of destroying diseased products is carefully detailed.

One obvious objection to the contagion theory is that it only accounts for the spread, and not for the origin, of the fever. But, as Dr. Budd argues, the same applies to small-pox and every other undoubtedly contagious disease. However the first case came about, no one supposes that fresh ones now arise spontaneously, any more than naturalists who believe that worms and buttercups once came into being for the first time, expect to find a worm appear in a drop of water without an egg, or a buttercup in a meadow without a seed.

The comparison of typhoid disease to the eruption of small-pox, which is revived by Dr. Budd, has been long and deservedly abandoned: indeed the strictly pathological part of this book is the least satisfactory. Notwithstanding a somewhat "drawing-room" appearance, it is no doubt intended for pathologists and physicians to study; and for them we cannot see the advantage of the four illustrations, one of which forms an elaborately coloured frontispiece; they show nothing but what has often been figured before, and is now universally familiar. The style also is now and then too ambitious, suggesting rivalry with the wretched newspaper writing quoted on p. 110 as "lively and facile." On the whole, however, the book is as solid as it is earnest, and may be compared without detriment with Dr. Macnamara's well-known work defending an almost identical theory and practice with regard to the propagation and prevention of Asiatic cholera.

The facts and arguments contained in it will no doubt be duly weighed by the medical profession, and the public will benefit by the result. P. S.

Inorganic Chemistry, Elementary. By Raphael Meldola.
F.C.S. (London: Thomas Murby, 1873.)
THE present little volume constitutes one of a series pro-
duced by the same publishers as "Science and Art De-

partment Text-books." We must congratulate Mr. Meldola on having produced in a small compass a thoroughly good and sound introduction to the science of chemistry, and it is all the more welcome in these days of "Science Series," when so many badly done "Text-books" are being produced. The information is well and clearly stated, and is sufficiently free from technicalities to be easily understood by the beginner. The book is plainly and well printed, but we cannot congratulate the pub lishers on the execution of the few and simple woodcuts, every one of which has been spoiled in the cutting. We hope that in a future edition the work will receive better treatment, as a well-done woodcut is a great aid to the beginner in understanding his author's descriptions of various experiments.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressd by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]

The Photographic Society

THE Sweeping condemnation of the Photographic Society conveyed in an article in NATURE, vol. ix. p. 263, can only have been written under a want of knowledge or misrepresentation of facts. I will not say one word about any dissension which may exist in the Society, but as the statements you have published are calculated to injure the Society very materially, I will ask you, in common justice, to make public the transactions of the Society for the past year, so that the readers of NATURE may judge for themselves whether in a body which does not profess whether no man of eminent scientific capacity takes part," and to be a purely scientific one, science is altogether ignored, whether the society is altogether beneath contempt as at present conducted. This I ask you to do not only in justice to the society, but to the gentlemen whose names are mentioned below.

1873. January meeting. "The Photographic Operations at the Royal Observatory in connection with Magnetical and other records," by James Glaisher, F.R.S.; "Instantaneous Microphotography," by E. J. Gayer, M.D.

February." On the Principles of the Chemical Correction of Object-Glasses," by Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L., Sec. R.S. March." A Contribution to the Early History of Photography," by H. Baden Pritchard, F.C.S.

April. Uranium Printing," by John Spiller, F. C.S.; "The Chemical Theory of the Latent Image," by Capt. Abney, R. E., F.C.S., F.R.A.S.

May." Improvements in Carbon Printing," by Mons. A. Marion.

June. "Remarks on three Wet Processes," by Jabez Hughes; "Photo-collotype Printing," by Capt. Waterhouse, B.S.C. December. Photography in the Arctic Regions," by Lieut. Chermside, R.E.

So far as investigations are concerned, I can mention two, at least, now being undertaken by members of the society, touching the process and nature of film best suited for the Transit of Venus observations.

Animal Locomotion

ex

THERE are two or three points in Dr. Pettigrew's new book as to which, perhaps, many of your readers in common with myself would be glad of a little light. First, in speaking of the gannet, he says: Each wing, when carefully measured and squared, gave an area of 19 square inches." But how is such an area obtained from the dimensions given? They are: "girth of trunk, 18 inches," z.e., about 5 inches for its width; panse of wing from tip to tip across the body, 5 feet," so that each wing would stretch about 334 inches from root to tip; across secondaries, 7 inches," and this we may take as about the average width of the wing. Multiplying length of wing by width (334 X 7), we get therefore an area of 234) square inches. Similarly Dr. Pettigrew assigns the heron's wing an area of 26 square inches, although the dimensions he gives yield an area of about 311 square inches. A friend of mine has the temerity to suggest that for some reason or unreason Dr. Pettigrew has

66

laquelle j'avais recours est à peu près identique à la sienne.

Je m' empresse de satisfaire à cette demande légitime, et je laisse entièrement la priorité sur moi, à M. Pettigrew relativement à la question ainsi restreinte." (Comptes Rendus for May 16, 1870, p. 1093.)

The next point which Mr. Garrod takes up is the "induced currents" of the wing. I state that "the efficiency of the wing is greatly increased by the fact that when it ascends it draws a current of air up after it, which current, being met by the wing during its descent, greatly augments the power of the downstroke. In like manner, when the wing descends, it draws a current of air down after it, which, being met by the wing, during its ascent, greatly augments the power of the up-stroke. This is simply a statement of fact, and if Mr. Garrod causes a natural or artificial wing to vibrate he will find that the wing takes a greater catch of the air when a down- and up-stroke or an upand down-stroke are made in rapid succession, than when a single stroke is made either in the one direction or in the other. This point becomes especially clear if a large artificial wing be constructed on the insect type and made to vibrate in a horizontal direction. If such a wing have its anterior margin slightly elevated and made to travel from right to left of the operator it draws after it a current of air which, being met by the wing when it is reversed and made to pass from left to right, acts as an autumn breeze to a kite. The wing literally flies on the current which it creates. It ascends at each thrust and carries the hand of the operator with it. Similar remarks are to be made of the tail of the fish. It is in this way that the back air and back water are utilised, and herein lies the excellence of the elastic reciprocating screw, as found in Nature, and as contra-distinguished from the rigid rotatory screw employed in navigation.

Mr. Garrod, adducing no proof in refutation of this and similar experiments, states "that these induced currents are of no real service in flight, because in their production there is as much force lost as there may be gained from their subsequent employment on the reversal of the action of the wing, if the bird's body has not advanced sufficiently far to be in each stroke beyond the range of their action, which is probably the case." On what authority does Mr. Garrod make this assertion? When a bird flies in still air, the wing of necessity must vibrate. The quicker it vibrates the more marked the reaction obtained from the air, and the greater the elevating and propelling power. The induced currents powerfully contribute to this reaction from the fact that the wing and the air are both moving, and moving in opposite directions. This, as explained, is a matter of experiment, and can readily be verified.

Lastly Mr. Garrod attacks my views on muscular movements. Here again he adduces no counter-proof, and, adhering to the old doctrine, contents himself by saying, "We are not ashamed to say that such has always been and still is our idea." This is not saying much. He takes exception to my statement that muscles have a centripetal or shortening power and a centrifugal or elongating power. Can he inform me how the left ventricle of the heart opens after a vigorous contraction, in which all the blood contained in the ventricular cavity is ejected and the ventricle converted into a solid muscular mass, if not by a spontaneous elongation of all its fibres ? Edinburgh, Jan. 27

J. BELL PETTIGREW

Specific Gravity of Sea-water

IN reference to Mr. Strachan's letter in NATURE, vol. ix. p. 183, calling attention to the discrepancy between Dr. Frankland's results and my own, permit me to state that they were not obtained from the same series of samples, and that the figures given by Dr. Frankland were, I believe, obtained by the use of a balance on shore, and also that from the way in which his specimens were packed, they were not liable to any appreciable loss by evaporation. They were not, however, taken from that part of the North Atlantic which was examined during the time that I was on board the Porcupine in 1869, to which alone my observations refer. My own results were obtained, as stated on p. 503 of "The Depths of the Sea," by delicate glass hydrometers, so graduated that the sp. gr. could easily be read to the fourth decimal place. Two instruments only were employed for the 105 observations made, and though they gave identical results, I had no opportunity of comparing their indications with the results obtained by a balance from the same specimen of water. I may remark here, however, that though the absolute results may not be quite correct, the relations between the sp. gr. of surface, intermediate, and bottom waters, pointed out on p. 505

of "The Depths of the Sea," as well as the range of variation, are probably very near the truth, since the same instruments were employed in all the determinations, and at the end of the series they indicated the same as at the commencement, when placed in a test solution, which was preserved for the purpose of detecting possible variations in the instruments themselves. Clifton, Bristol, Jan. 17 WM. LANT CARPENTER

THE LINNEAN SOCIETY

WE regret to hear of an unpleasant event which ciety on Thursday last (5th inst.). took place at the meeting of the Linnean SoSo far as we have been able to gather the particulars they are as follows. When the usual minutes had been read at the commencement of the meeting, a Fellow of the Society rose in his place and endeavoured to propose a motion reflecting upon the conduct of the President at the preceding meeting. The President (Mr. George Bentham, F.R S.) ruled that the Fellow was out of order and that his motion could not be put, and requested the would-be mover of it to sit down in his place. In spite of frequent calls to order, however, this gentleman persisted in his endeavours to bring forward his grievances, and to address the meeting. At last Mr. Bentham, finding that his efforts to preserve order were vain, and that the mover of the motion (who had given no sort of notice of his intentions) was backed up by a body of clamorous friends assembled specially for the purpose, quitted the chair and left the meeting-room, followed by the Secretary and all the other members of the Council present.

As the chair of the Linnean Society can only be taken by a member of Council, the meeting thus came to a premature end, much to the disappointment of those who had assembled to hear Mr. W. K. Parker read his paper on the osteology of the woodpeckers.

We regret to have to add that, in consequence of this untoward event, Mr. Bentham has tendered his resignation as President of the Society. Bat we trust that the Fellows who caused the disturbance will, upon reflection, feel that however much they might have considered themselves aggrieved by the President's decision at the previous meeting, they were not justified in the course they pursued. In all meetings the decision of a chairman upon a point of order is held to be final, at all events for the occasion. More especially should this be the case in a learned society assembled for the discussion of scientific problems, and not for vulgar wranglings and disputes upon immaterial subjects.

We trust therefore that an ample apology will be offered to the President by these gentlemen, and that he will be induced to retain his chair until the approaching anniver sary meeting of the Society, when he had already given notice of his intention not to accept re-nomination. The great services which Mr. Bentham has rendered to Science generally and to the Linnean Society in particular, are too well known to the readers of NATURE to render it necessary for us to descant upon them in these columns. The Linnean Society has just acquired a new and most convenient abode in the apartments at Burlington House, recently provided for it by the liberality of the country, and it would be a great misfortune if disunion should succeed in marring the work of those who are now endeavouring to make the Society still more useful and more prosperous than it has been in past times. POLARISATION OF LIGHT*