could the finer sorts of manufactures be carried on? What sort of work would a weaver make, whose fingers were numbed with cold; or a workman in steel, whose flesh froze to his manufacture? In such a climate manufactures must be carried on in mild or warm weather, and then the workmen may have what they will ask in the field, and all the advantages here stated are at once given up. Under such circumstances no fabrics can be made cheap enough to under-sell Britain, but such as come extravagantly dear from her, and can be made reasonable in America; or others so inferior in kind, that freight and carriage make a large proportion of the whole value. .

Manufactures in these colonies have been owing to the increase of the people being beyond the proportion of fresh land to take off the surplus of population; nothing can either put them down or prevent their increase, but drawing off many of the inhabitants, by tempting them with a better country and plenty of land, and finding more profitable employments than manufacturing for such as stay at home. These are the grand objects: well pursued they would prove effectual in putting down all their manufactories for sale, and preventing new ones being erected; but if the work was not sufficiently executed thereby, the bounty on similar British fabrics would give the finishing stroke. The northern colonies under such a system of policy would no more have manufactures abounding among them of their own make, than the West Indies or the southern colonies, excepting what was the private work of families; an object not of much jealousy to Britain, and even those would be much lessened by the same conduct. At the same time that this great and desirable effect took place, the manufacturing interest of the mother-country would be amazingly advanced more than by any other measure that could be devised; for the export to America would be increased proportionably to the quantity made by the American manufactories for sale, and the import of naval stores; so that instead of paying a vast sum in bullion to the Baltic for those commodities, they would be bought of the colonies with manufactures, a difference infinitely great. The trade and navigation of Britain would be greatly encouraged — and her American affairs would be thrown on a footing that would, if well pursued,

be effectual in preventing those many evils which cannot but arise from the establishment of manufactures among the colonists.

III. IMMIGRATION AND THE SUPPLY OF LABORERS

1 In some years, more people have transported themselves into Pennsylvania, than into all the other settlements together. In 1729, six thousand two hundred and eight persons came to settle here as passengers or servants, four fifths of whom at least were from Ireland. In short, this province has increased so greatly from the time of its first establishment, that, whereas lands were given by Mr. Penn the founder of the colony at the rate of twenty pounds for a thousand acres, reserving only a shilling every hundred acres for quit-rent; and this in some of the best situated parts of the province : yet now, at a great distance from navigation, land is granted at twelve pounds the hundred acres, and a quitrent of four shillings reserved; and the land which is near Philadelphia rents for twenty shillings the acre. In many places, and at the distance of several miles from that city, land sells for twenty years purchase.

The Pennsylvanians are an industrious and hardy people; they are most of them substantial, though but a few of the landed people can be considered as rich; but they are all well lodged, well fed, and for their condition, well clad too; and this at the more easy rate, as the inferior people manufacture most of their own wear, both linens and woollens. There are but few Blacks, not in all the fortieth part of the people of the province.

Pennsylvania is inhabited by upwards of two hundred and fifty thousand people, half of whom are Germans, Swedes, or Dutch. Here you see the Quakers, Churchmen, Calvinists, Lutherans, Catholics, Methodists, Menists, Moravians, Independents, the Anabaptists, and the Dumplers, a sort of German sect, that live in something like a religious society, wear long beards, and a habit resembling that of friars. In short, the diversity of people, religions, nations, and languages here, is prodigious, and the harmony in which they live together no less edifying.

1 Burke, European Settlements in America [1761], II, 205-206, 199, 200-201.

It was certainly a very right policy to encourage the importation of foreigners into Pennsylvania, as well as into our other colonies. By this we are great gainers, without any diminution of the inhabitants of Great Britain. But it has been frequently observed, and, as it should seem, very justly complained of, that they are left still foreigners, and likely to continue so for many generations; as they have schools taught, books printed, and even the common news paper in their own language; by which means, and as they possess large tracts of the country without any intermixture of English, there is no appearance of their blending and becoming one people with us. This certainly is a great irregularity, and the greater, as these foreigners, by their industry, frugality, and a hard way of living, in which they greatly exceed our people, have in a manner thrust themselves out in several places; so as to threaten the colony with the danger of being wholly foreign in language, manners, and perhaps even inclinations. In the year 1750, were imported into Pennsylvania and its dependencies four thousand three hundred and seventeen Germans, whereas of British and Irish but one thousand arrived; a considerable number, if it was not so vastly overbalanced by that of the foreigners.

1 In the course of my excursions, I have conversed with divers intelligent planters who emigrated to this country, on account of various discouraging circumstances which baffled their utmost industry at home. A principal cause which has been assigned by very many for becoming adventurers in this part of the world, is the custom, which is becoming too prevalent in England, of farming extensive farms, for the accomodation of wealthy tenants, and for greater facility in collecting the rents.

Whatever present advantages may arise from this practice, be assured a perseverance therein will be attended with consequences very prejudicial, for by this means a sensible depopulation will ensue; a considerable tract of country will be occupied by few inhabitants, and a multitude of valuable members of the community, will be obliged to abandon their homes and connexions, and to court fortune in a distant region, where land may be procured

1 Eddis, Letters from America [1769-1777], pp. 109-110, 63-75

for a trifling consideration, and where the greatest encouragement is held out to skill and application. . .

Your information relative to the situation of servants in this country, is far from being well-founded. I have now been upwards of twelve months resident in Maryland, and am thereby enabled to convey to you a tolerable idea on this subject.

Persons in a state of servitude are under four distinct denominations: negroes, who are the entire property of their respective owners; convicts, who are transported from the mother country for a limited term; indented servants, who are engaged for five years previous to their leaving England; and free-willers, who are supposed, from their situation, to possess superior advantages.

The negroes in this province are, in general, natives of the country; very few in proportion being imported from the coast of Africa. They are better cloathed, better fed, and better treated, than their unfortunate brethren, whom a more rigid fate hath subjected to slavery in our West India islands; neither are their employments so laborious, nor the acts of the legislature so partially oppressive against them. The further we proceed to the northward, the less number of people are to be found of this complexion: In the New England government, negroes are almost as scarce as on your side of the Atlantic, and but few are under actual slavery; but as we advance to the south, their multitudes astonishingly increase, and in the Carolinas they considerably exceed the number of white inhabitants.

Maryland is the only province into which convicts may be freely imported. The Virginians have inflicted very severe penalties on the masters of vessels, or others, who may attempt to introduce persons under this description into their colony. They have been influenced in this measure by an apprehension, that, from the admission of such inmates into their families, the prevalence of bad example might tend to universal depravity, in spite of every regulation, and restraining law.

Persons convicted of felony, and in consequence transported to this continent, if they are able to pay the expence of passage, are free to pursue their fortune agreeably to their inclinations or abilities. Few, however, have means to avail themselves of this advantage.

These unhappy beings are, generally, consigned to an agent, who classes them suitably to their real or supposed qualifications; advertises them for sale, and disposes of them, for seven years, to planters, to mechanics, and to such as choose to retain them for domestic service. Those who survive the term of servitude, seldom establish their residence in this country: the stamp of infamy is too strong upon them to be easily erased: they either return to Europe, and renew their former practices; or, if they have fortunately imbibed habits of honesty and industry, they remove to a distant situation, where they may hope to remain unknown, and be enabled to pursue with credit every possible method of becoming useful members of society.

In your frequent excursions about the great metropolis, you cannot but observe numerous advertisements, offering the most seducing encouragement to adventurers under every possible description; to those who are disgusted with the frowns of fortune. in their native land; and to those of an enterprising disposition, who are tempted to court her smiles in a distant region. These persons are referred to agents, or crimps, who represent the advantages to be obtained in America, in colours so alluring, that it is almost impossible to resist their artifices. Unwary persons are accordingly induced to enter into articles, by which they engage to become servants, agreeable to their respective qualifications, for the term of five years; every necessary accomodation being found them during the voyage; and every method taken that they may be treated with tenderness and humanity during the period of servitude; at the expiration of which they are taught to expect, that opportunities will assuredly offer to secure to the honest and industrious, a competent provision for the remainder of their days.

The generality of the inhabitants in this province are very little acquainted with those fallacious pretences, by which numbers are continually induced to embark for this continent. On the contrary, they too generally conceive an opinion that the difference is merely nominal between the indented servant and the convicted felon : nor will they readily believe that people, who had the least experience in life, and whose characters were unexceptionable, would abandon their friends and families, and their ancient connexions, for a servile