1 In this Manufactory [Eli Whitney's at New Haven] muskets are made in a manner, which I believe to be singular. In forming the various parts of this instrument, machinery, moved by water, and remarkably adapted in every instance to the purpose in view, is employed for hammering, cutting, turning, perforating, grinding, polishing, &c. &c.

The proportion, and relative position, of the several parts of the locks are so exactly alike; and the screws, springs, and other limbs, are made so similar; that they may be transferred from one lock and adjusted to another without any material alteration. This desirable object, Mr. Whitney has accomplished by an apparatus, which is simple, peculiar, and eminently ingenious. By an application of the same principles a much greater uniformity has also been given to every part of the muskets, made in this manufactory, than can be found in those, which are fabricated at any other. The advantages, which in actual service result from this uniformity, are too obvious to need an explanation.

This establishment was undertaken by Mr. Whitney without the least experience in manufacturing fire-arms. All his workmen, also, who were employed in carrying it into operation, were absolutely unskilled in the business: not one of them having ever wrought in any branch of it, antecedently to their having been instructed by him.

In these circumstances Mr. Whitney was constrained to adopt methods of his own, and, as skilful artists could not be obtained, to devise a system in which the more exact operations of his machinery might supply the want of experience in the workmen. Hence modes of working iron, and other metals, and materials, have been invented by him, which are new and peculiar; and which experience has shewn to be exceedingly useful.

1 Dwight, Travels in New England and New York [1803], II, 289–290. This is probably the origin of the device of interchangeable parts which later became such an important feature of many branches of American manufactures.

IV. CONDITIONS AFTER THE CLOSE OF THE EUROPEAN WARS, 1815-1840

1 But no special protection beyond the ordinary revenue duties has been, or is, necessary for the introduction of the manufactures required by the wants of the country. The annual average value of the imported merchandise paying duties ad valorem in the years 1798-1801 amounted, after deducting those exported with the benefit of drawback, to $33,747,000. Deducting about $950,000 on account of articles exported that were not entitled to drawback, and of the fruits, spices, and some other minor items not then charged with specific duties, the residue, amounting to $32,000,000, is the value of the foreign manufactured commodities annually consumed at that time. The annual average value of the imported goods paying duties ad valorem during the years 1821-1824, taken from the annual statements of commerce, amounted, after deducting the reëxportations, to $32,910,000. To this must be added, first, $2,700,000, being the value of the iron and manufactured articles which now pay specific duties. Secondly, $7,000,000, being the difference between the present value of the cotton goods now imported and that of the same quantity in the years 1799-1801; the increase, therefore, during that period of twenty-three years, amounts to about $10,600,000, or to about 33%; and that of the domestic exports will be found to have been 35%. During the same period the population of the United States has more than doubled.

It will not be denied that the people of the United States were at least as well supplied in the year 1824 as in the year 1801 with clothing, furniture, and every species of manufactured commodities. A population twice as great, in order to be equally well supplied, required twice the amount of such articles. And since the value of foreign goods of that description consumed in the United States in 1824 amounted only to $42,600,000, instead of $64,000,000, the difference must necessarily have been supplied by domestic manufactures. Not only those which were established in 1801 must have increased in a ratio equal to the increase of population,

1 Gallatin, Memorial of the Free Trade Convention [1831] printed in Taussig's State Papers and Speeches on the Tariff, pp. 208-210.

but by a further quantity, amounting to $21,400,000. The annual amount of foreign manufactures had, during that period, and prior to the tariffs of 1824 and 1828, been lessened more than one third in proportion to the population.

The actual increase of domestic manufactures cannot be precisely ascertained, since the actual amount in 1801 is not known; but the limits of that increase may be correctly estimated. From the imperfect data obtained in the year 1810, it appears certain that the amount in the year 1801 did not exceed $100,000,000, or fall short of $60,000,000. The domestic manufactures formed, therefore, from two thirds to three fourths of the total amount of the manufactured commodities consumed. The total amount consumed in the years 1821-1824 amounted to $264,000,000, according to the first supposition, and to $184,000,000, according to the second. Deducting, in both cases, the amount of foreign goods annually consumed in those years, and amounting to $42,600,000, the increase of domestic manufactures would have been, in twentythree years, 121% in the first case, and 136% in the second. We have a moral certainty that it was within those limits; and that the amount of foreign manufactures was in 1824 from one fifth to one sixth, while it was in 1801 from one third to one fourth, of the whole amount of manufactured commodities consumed.

Proceeding in the same manner, it will appear that, without any such special protection as that of the tariffs of 1824 and 1828, the total value of the manufactures consumed in the United States in the year 1847 will probably be $450,000,000, of which the domestic manufactures will form seven eighths, and foreign merchandise no more than one eighth part. In all probability the increase of domestic manufactures will be greater, in proportion, during that period of twenty-three years, than during the next preceding; since there will be more skill and experience, a more dense population, and a greater proportionate capital.

The principle is indisputable; and if there is some error in the numbers, it will no otherwise affect the result, than that it may take place a few years sooner or later. But that result with a population so active and intelligent is certain. The question is only one of time; and admitting, for the sake of argument, that the

protecting system has a tendency to accelerate the establishment of manufactures in general, all that can be gained by it is, that the same necessary result may be obtained a few years earlier.

1 There are several parts of the United States where certain branches of manufactures are permanently fixed, without including those household productions, which are made to a great extent in every state in the Union. It is my purpose only, in answer to your inquiries, to tell you what has been done in the eastern division; to say something of the advantages it possesses for the prosecution of manufactures, and to remark upon some of the objections, that have been urged against them. . . .

The cotton manufactories are numerous; they are scattered over every part of these states many of them small, with only four or five hundred spindles, and from that number up to ten or fifteen thousand; these are, in almost every instance, the property of incorporated companies; most of them were hastily erected, and their machinery is not very good. The aggregate of their produce is very considerable, though very few of them continue in full steady operation. Their capital is commonly too limited, to enable them to transact their business advantageously. They are often obliged to make forced sales of their goods, and a rise in the price of the raw material consumes all their profits, and forces them to suspend their work; of course, they cannot be expected to make any great improvement while liable to such interruptions. Still, this branch of manufactures for the production of coarse kinds of goods, may be considered as permanently established here.

The manufactures of iron, both wrought and cast, are largely extended in this quarter. Some iron is made from the ore, but by far the largest quantity consumed, is imported from Russia, Sweden, and England. The chief articles of cast iron, are made here to the exclusion of foreign ones. Many of the coarser articles of wrought iron are also made in large quantities, such as nails, shovels, edge tools, &c. We have, by necessity, been obliged to manufacture machinery, since it was not allowed to be exported from England. We have many excellent workmen in this line, and the most delicate 1 Tudor, Letters on the Eastern States [1819], pp. 253, 258-263, 265–266.

and difficult machinery is made in perfection, from a stocking loom, or a card machine, up to a steam engine; of these last we have two or three manufactories; and these invaluable machines are now getting more and more into use.

The manufactures of leather are all extensively established, and many of them brought to a high degree of perfection. In the preparation of skins, we have not yet produced the finest kinds of Morocco or Russia leather, but we are daily making a progress towards doing so. In some of the manufactures of which leather is the principal material, our produce for a long period has been very considerable; others have been more recently introduced, but all of them may vie with any foreign production. Boots, shoes, trunks, saddlery, and bookbinding, furnish a large amount in our exports to the rest of the Union. Every article of any importance made from skins, except gloves, may be considered as one of our permanent manufactures. To these may be added hats, both from wool and fur, of which large quantities are made, though we still import many of the finer descriptions from Europe.

Our woollen manufactures may yet be considered in their infancy, though their produce is very considerable. Of the coarser kind of woollens a very considerable proportion of what is worn in the country, is home made. The quantity has been increased by the saving of labour, from the establishment of carding machines, which are every where to be found. Several respectable manufactories, for the production of the finer kinds of cloth and cassimeres, have been got up within a few years; and some of the specimens they have shown will bear a comparison with almost any productions of the European looms. These manufactories are gradually increasing, and we may look forward to no very distant period, when they will more than supply our own wants. Their success is connected with the improvement of our breeds of sheep; this has commenced with the introduction of the Spanish breeds: but there are some other races that are greatly wanted, and which will no doubt be had, ere long, in spite of foreign prohibition.

Besides these principal branches of manufactures, there are many others in extensive operation. Among these, glass may be cited, as having been so early brought to rival the most beautiful